THE    ECONOMY    OF    FOOD 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/economyoffoodpopOOmurrricli 


THE    ECONOMY    OF 
FOOD 

A  POPULAR  TREATISE  ON 

NUTRITION,  FOOD 

AND  DIET 


By 
J.  ALAN  MURRAY,  B.Sc 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

191 1 


•■:.*■:  :..3' 


PREFACE 

The  scope  of  this  work  is  fairly  indicated  by  the 
Bub-title.  It  is  described  as  a  popular  treatise 
because  it  is  intended  for  students  of  domestic 
economy,  cooks,  caterers,  housekeepers  and  managers 
of  institutions,  rather  than  for  speciaHsts  in  physi- 
ology, chemistry  and  hygiene.  The  subject  cannot 
be  adequately  treated  without  reference  to  the 
principles  of  these  sciences  ;  but  the  more  difficult 
parts  have  been  relegated  to  footnotes,  and  the  use 
of  technical  terms  in  the  text  has  been  avoided  as 
far  as  possible. 

The  first  section  deals  mainly  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  body.  The  origin,  properties  and 
composition  of  the  commoner  kinds  of  food  are 
discussed  in  the  second.  In  the  third,  an  attempt 
is  made  to  combine  these  two  branches  in  a  form 
suitable  for  practical  everyday  use — to  translate 
protein,  carbohydrates,  etc.,  into  terms  of  bread 
and  meat,  i.e.,  of  breakfast,  dinner  and  supper. 

281515 


vi  PREFACE 

The  interest  is  largely  centered  upon  the  pecuniary 
aspects  of  the  subject.  The  prices  quoted  are,  in 
most  cases,  those  of  London  stores.  They  are,  of 
course,  Kable  to  fluctuation  ;  but  they  represent, 
as  nearly  as  could  be  ascertained,  the  average  prices 
prevailing  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  All 
calculations  in  which  prices  are  involved  are  explained 
in  detail ;  and  the  reader  can  therefore  adjust  any 
possible  differences  due  to  this  cause. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  estimating  the  relative 
pecimiary  values  of  foods  which  the  author  has 
ventured  to  propound  in  Chapter  XIV,  there  may 
be  room  for  some  difference  of  opinion.  The  object 
might,  perhaps,  have  been  achieved  by  other  means  ; 
but  most  of  the  methods  hitherto  adopted  have 
proved  unsatisfactory  to  the  class  of  reader  chiefly 
concerned.  The  calculated  results  given  in  the 
tables  will  be  found  easily  intelligible  and  convenient 
in  form. 

The  author  disclaims  any  special  sociological  skill. 
He  does  not  pretend  to  say  authoritatively  what 
proportion  of  the  family  income  either  is  or  should 
be  expended  on  food.  For  the  purposes  of  Chapter 
XVIII,  the  sum  of  55.  per  head,  per  week,  affords 
an  opportunity  of  discussing  the  difficulties  and 
possibiHties  of  the  subject,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
a  typical  case. 


PREFACE  vii 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  illustrative  examples, 
practically  all  the  tabular  matter  has  been  collected 
together  in  the  form  of  an  appendix  to  Section  II. 
This  arrangement  is  handy  for  reference,  and  it 
possesses  the  further  advantage  that  the  reader's 
attention  is  not  distracted  by  masses  of  figures  — 
often  not  wholly  relevant  to  the  issue — ^which  would 
otherwise  appear  on  nearly  every  page. 

As  so  much  is  founded  upon  data  obtained  by 
the  use  of  calorimeters,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
illustrate  the  apparatus,  though  it  was  impossible, 
within  the  Umits  of  space,  to  attempt  any  descrip- 
tion of  their  construction  or  the  methods  of  using 
them. 

Standard  works  on  dietetics,  chemistry  and 
physiology  have  been  freely  consulted,  and  much 
information  has  been  culled  from  the  bulletins  of 
the  Office  of  Experiment  stations  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  The  researches  of  Atwater 
and  Bryant  have  furnished  most  of  the  data  relating 
to  the  composition  of  foods,  but  some  are  derived 
from  other  sources.  The  analyses  of  patent  and 
proprietary  articles  were  supphed  by  the  makers. 
For  information  regarding  the  composition  of  pastry, 
soups  and  other  compounded  foods,  the  author  has 
relied  chiefly  upon  Mrs.  Beeton's  cookery  book. 
Practical  men  engaged  in  the  meat,  fish  and  grocery 


viii  PREFACE 

trades  have  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  con- 
nexion with  the  matter  relating  to  their  several 
departments.  The  help  received  from  Dr.  T.  P. 
Beddoes,  Mr.  W.  R.  Thomas,  and  Miss  Elsie  H. 
Penry  in  revising  the  proofs  must  also  be  gratefully 
acknowledged. 

Oxford, 

January^  1911. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAQB 


Preface 


SECTION  I.    NUTRITION 

CHAPTER   I 

Introductory 

Definition  of  Terms — Economy — Parsimony — Extravagance 
— Cheap  and  Dear  Foods — Digestibility — Nutritive 
and  Fattening  Foods — Flesh-formers  and  Heat  Pro- 
ducers— Popular  Fallacies — Errors  in  Diet  .  ,        I 

CHAPTER    II 

Physiology  of  Ntjtrition 

Anatomical  Composition  of  the  Body — Proportion  of 
Parts — Respiration  —  Digestion  —  Ferments — Saliva 
— Pepsin — Bile — Pancreatic  Juice — Chyme — Absorption 
— Lymph  —  Excretion  —  Mastication — Inhibition — 
Preservatives  in  Foods — Percentage  Digestibility — 
Time  occupied  in  Gastric  Digestion — Constituents  of 
Urine 13 

CHAPTER    III 

Chemistry  of  Nutrition 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Body — Nature  of  Food — 
Protein — Fat — Carbohydrates  — Metabolism — Heat  o£ 
Combustion — Physiological  Values — Nutritive  Value 
of  Gtelatin  and  Amides    ,  .  .  .  ,  .25 

CHAPTER    IV 
Quantity  of  Food 

Methods  of  Investigation — Estimation  of  Urea  and  Car- 
bonic Acid — Results  of  Experiments — ^Voit  and  Petten- 
kofer — Minimum  of  Protein — Chittenden's  Views — 
Non-nitrogenous  Nutrients  —  Standard  Diet  —  Size  of 
Individual — Climate  and  Exposure — ^Work — Liebig's 
Views — Value  of  Additional  Protein — Diet  for  Work — 
Various  Authorities — Increase  and  Reduction  of  Weight 
— Pregnancy  and  Lactation — Diet  for  Children.  .     39 

ix 


X  TABLE   OF  COISTTENTS 

PAQB 

SECTION  II.     FOOD 
CHAPTER    V 

CLASSinCATION   AND   GENERAIi   PROPERTIES   OP   FoODS. 

Classification  of  Foods — Nutritive  Character — Nutritive 
Ratio — Non-nutrient  and  Refuse  Parts — General  Pro- 
perties of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Products         .  .     64 

CHAPTER    VI 

Butcher's  Meat 

Beef — Veal — Mutton — Lamb — Pork  —  Bacon  —  Seasons — 
Methods  of  Cutting  Up — Sides — Fore  and  Hind  Quar- 
ters— Principal  Joints — Average  Weight  and  Price 
of  each — Proportions  of  Bone — Fat  and  Lean — Com- 
parison of  Different  Kinds  of  Meat — Sundries  .         .     69 

CHAPTER    VII 
Poultry,  Game  and  Fish 
Fowls — Chickens  —  Ducks  —  Geese — Turkeys — Rabbits — 
Fresh    Fish— Cured    Fish— Methods    of    Curing— Shell 
Fish — Seasons — Average     Size     and     Prices — Propor- 
tions of  Refuse  and  Edible  Matter  .  .  .         .85 

CHAPTER    VIII 

Dairy  Produce 

Cow's  Milk — Composition — Goat's  Milk — Mother's  Milk — 
Preparation  of  Bottle  Milk  for  Infants — Humanized 
Milk  —  Preservatives  —  Sterilized  Milk — Skim  and 
Separated  Milk — Cream — Butter — Margarine — Cheese 
— Whey — Eggs — Composition — Average  Size  and  Price 
of  Eggs — Testing  and  Preservation  of  Eggs       .  .     92 

CHAPTER    IX 
Cereajls,  Farinaceous  Products,  etc. 

Characteristic  Properties — Wheat — Flour — Bread — Macar- 
oni— Vermicelh  —  Semolina  —  Barley  —  Rice  —  Oats — 
Oatmeal  —  Crushed  Oats — Maize — Hominy — Cornflour 
— Arrowroot  —  Tapioca  —  Sago  —  Pulse  —  Beans  — 
Peas — Lentils — Nuts  —  Sugar  —  Treacle  and  Golden 
Syrup — Vegetable  Oils — Vegetable  Margarine     .  .    103 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    X 

Fbuits  and  Vegetables 

Fresh  Vegetables — Composition — Nutritive  Value — Hygienic 
Properties  —  Fruit  —  Composition  —  Ripe  and  Unripe 
Condition — Jam — Failure  to  Jelly — Honey — Dried  Fruit  116 

CHAPTER    XI 

Prepared  Foods,  Packet  Goods,  Patent  and  Proprietary 
Articles 

Packet  Goods — Infants'  and  Invalids'  Foods — Cereal 
Preparations — Milk  Foods — Mixed  Foods — Malted  and 
Peptonized  Products — Meat  Juices  and  Extracts — 
Commercial  Peptones — Meat  Powders  and  Pastes — 
Gelatin — Table  Jellies — Desiccated  Eggs — Egg  and 
Custard  Powders      .  .  .  .  .  .  .121 

CHAPTER    XII 
Spices,  Condiments  and  Miscellaneous  Articles 

Spices,  Aromatic  Properties — Pungency — Adulteration — 
Nutmegs — Mace — Pimento  —  Cloves  —  Cinnamon  — 
Cassia  —  Ginger — Essences  —  Vanilla  —  Almonds  — 
Lemon  —  Condiments  —  Salt  —  Pepper — Cayenne — 
Mustard  —  Vinegar  —  Saccharin  —  Yeast  —  Baking 
Powders — Rennet    .  .  .  .  .  .         .131 

CHAPTER    XIII 

Effects  of  Cooking  Food 

Methods  of  Cooking — Wet  and  Dry  Heat — Objects  of 
Cooking — ^Various  Effects — Sterilization — Influence  on 
Digestibility — Coagulation — Loss  of  Weight — Loss  of 
Nutrients  —  Boiling  Meat  —  Roasting  Meat  —  Boiling 
Vegetables — Steaming       .  .  .  .  .  .143 

CHAPTER    XIV 

The  Relative  Value  of  Foods 

Relation  of  Prices  to  Nutritive  Values  of  Foods — Questions 
of  Pecuniary  Economy — Values  of  Several  Constituents 
— Determination  of  Values — Definition  of  Relative 
Value — Application  of  Formula — Comparison  of  Rela- 
tive Values  with  Market  Prices         .  .  .  .149 


xu  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER    XV 

An  Appendix  to  Section  II  showing  the  Composition  and 
Relative  Values  of  Foods 

Explanation  of  Tables — A.  Animal  Products — B.  Vegetable 
Products — C.  Cereal  and  Milk  Preparations — D.  Meat 
Preparations — E.  Milk  Preparations  and  Miscellaneous 
Products — F.  Relative  Values  of  Foods — G.  Per- 
centages =  ounces  per  lb.  .  .  .  .  .160 

SECTION  III.     DIET 

CHAPTER   XVI 

Computation  of  Diets 

Adaptation  of  Foods  to  Requirements — Adjustment  of 
Quantities  —  Difficulties  —  Case  of  Two  Foods  —  Pro- 
portions required  to  Produce  a  given  N.  ratio — 
Arithmetical  Method  —  Graphic  Solution  —  Quantities 
to  Produce  Specified  Diet — Simultaneous  Equations — 
More  than  Two  Foods — Indefinite  Number  of  Solutions 
— Maximum  and  Minimum  Quantities       .  .  .    183 

CHAPTER    XVII 

National  Diets 

Staple  Foods  in  Various  Countries — Use  of  Animal  Foods 
in  Cold  Climates — Eskimos — Importance  of  Variety — 
Theoretical  Maximum  of  any  Food — Bread — Bread 
and  Butter — Oatmeal — Potatoes — Meat — Mixed  Diet — 
Quantities  Required — Relative  Cost  .  .  .196 

CHAPTER    XVIII 

Familiar,  Diet 

Ways  and  Means — Requirements  of  Families — Proportion 
of  Income  Available  for  Food — Typical  Case — Maxi- 
mum Amount  of  Meat — A  Day's  Rations — Three  Meals 
— Possible  Variations — Fruit  and  Vegetables — Milk 
Puddings — Batter  Puddings — Boiled  Pastry — Bread 
Puddings — Soups — Stock — Milk  Soup — Clear  Soups — 
Vegetable  Soups — Thick  Soups — Variation  of  Morning 
and  Evening  Meals  ......   206 

CHAPTER    XIX 

Special  Diet 

Invalids — Dietetic  Treatment — Constipation —  Dyspepsia — 
Obesity — Banting — Diabetes — Rheumatism  and  Gout 
— Vegetarian  Diet   .......  235 


SECTION  I.     NUTRITION 

CHAPTER   I 
INTEODUCTORY 

Economics,  so  far  as  they  regard  only  inanimate 
things,  serve  only  the  low  purposes  of  gain  ;  but 
where  they  regard  human  beings  they  rise  higher. 

Plutarch. 

A  GOOD  deal  of  confusion  exists  regarding  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  economy.  In  the  ordinary  lan- 
guage of  the  housekeeper  it  is  associated  with  the 
idea  of  frugality,  thrift  or  saving.  Ruskin  has 
pointed  out  that  "  economy  is  not  saving  any  more 
than  it  is  spending.'*  It  is  obvious,  however,  that 
it  does,  or  may,  mean  saving  if  one  chooses  that  it 
shall  do  so. 

The  word  is  also  used  in  a  different  sense.  It  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  otVo?,  a  house,  and  vofio^, 
to  manage  or  control.  That,  no  doubt,  is  what  it 
originally  implied,  and  the  expression  "  domestic 
economy  "  is,  therefore,  redimdant.  But  the  mean- 
ing was  gradually  extended  to  the  administration 
of  the  resources  and  concerns  of  any  community 
or  establishment,  and  ultimately  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  any  complex  unity.  Thus  we  speak  of 
animal  and  vegetable  economy,  the  economy  of 
nature,  and  so  on. 


2-  \ :  >'  I  >:  •  -  -  BdONOMy.  OF  FOOD 

*  It  is  in  this  latter  sense  that  the  term  economy 
has  been  introduced  into  the  title  of  this  book, 
which  treats  of  the  nature,  sources,  composition 
and  functions  of  various  kinds  of  food.  As,  how- 
ever, it  is  intended  to  deal  with  the  subject  largely 
from  the  former  point  of  view,  i.e.  with  reference 
to  the  cost  and  thrifty  use  of  food,  the  very  am- 
biguity of  the  term  renders  it  a  peculiarly  appro- 
priate one  for  the  purpose. 

In  the  sense  of  saving,  economy  is  often  con- 
founded with  parsimony ;  but  they  are  not  the 
same.  Saving  is  not  economy  if  it  interferes  with 
the  purpose  in  view.  The  purpose  of  taking  food 
is  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  hunger,  to  provide  for 
the  requirements  of  the  body,  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  to  gratify  the  legitimate  sensations  of  the 
palate.  Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  food  might  be  saved 
by  going  on  haK  rations  ;  but  if  hunger  were  not 
appeased,  this  could  not  properly  be  called  economy, 
except  under  famine  conditions.  Potatoes  are 
cheaper  than  meat,  and  hunger  may  be  appeased 
by  the  former  at  less  cost  than  by  the  latter  ;  but 
if  the  body  be  not  properly  nourished,  there  would 
be  no  true  economy  ;  the  saving  would  be,  in  effect, 
not  gain  but  loss. 

Gratification  of  the  palate  is,  perhaps,  a  matter 
of  secondary,  but  still  of  considerable,  importance, 
especially  for  those  engaged  in  sedentary  occupa- 
tions. Nervous  exhaustion  is  frequently  accom- 
panied by  loss  of  appetite,  and  in  such  a  condition 
a  person  may  not  eat  enough  to  sustain  him  pro- 
perly if  the  food  be  not  to  his  taste.  It  is  not  econ- 
omy, therefore,  but^^the  reverse  to  provide  food — 
however  cheap — ^which  the  person  for  whom  it  is 
intended  can't  or  won't  eat.    Even  minor  prefer- 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

ences  should  be  considered  as  far  as  possible.  Con- 
diments and  flavouring  materials,  though  of  no 
value  in  themselves,  may  prove  useful  in  this 
connexion. 

Any  saving  in  cost  may  be  regarded  as  economy, 
in  the  pecuniary  sense,  provided  the  food  is  of  a 
kind  suitable  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body, 
sufficient  in  quantity,  and  sufficiently  attractive 
to  be  eaten  with  a  relish.  Any  expenditure  be- 
yond the  minimum  required  to  obtain  such  food 
may  be,  by  contrast,  regarded  as  extravagance. 
It  is  beside  the  question  to  argue  that  the  more 
expensive  food  might  be  nicer,  and  that,  if  the 
person  could  afford  it,  such  extravagance  would 
be  justifiable.  At  present,  the  object  is  merely  to 
arrive  at  an  understanding  regarding  the  meaning 
of  the  terms  employed. 

The  kind  and  quantity  of  food  that  should  be 
eaten  are  indicated,  to  some  extent,  by  instinct — 
the  sensations  of  the  stomach,  the  palate  and  the 
nostrils  ;  but  luider  the  conditions  of  civilized  life, 
this  is  not  a  sufficient  or  altogether  reliable  guide. 
A  person  might  habitually  over-eat  and  yet  be  in 
a  state  bordering  upon  starvation.  Cases  of  this 
kind  are  probably  of  rare  occurrence,  but  they  are 
conceivable.  They  are  more  likely  to  arise  in  con- 
nexion with  the  feeding  of  children  than  of  adults. 
If  the  food  be  unsuitable,  either  in  quantity  or 
quality,  some  portion  of  it  will  be  wasted,  and 
health  and  comfort  will  be  more  or  less  deranged. 

Profound  ignorance  concerning  the  requirements 
of  the  body  and  of  the  properties  and  functions  of 
the  various  kinds  of  food  is  very  prevalent,  even 
amongst  the  educated  classes.  The  majority  of 
people  are  content  to  be  guided  in  their  choice  of 


4  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

food,  by  what  is  customary  in  the  class  and  coun- 
try to  which  they  belong.  Many  of  the  well  estab- 
lished dietetic  customs  are  based  on  experience, 
traditional  and  personal,  and  they  are  usually,  but 
not  invariably,  sound  and  satisfactory  in  the  main. 
But  they  are  subject  to  modification  in  detail,  and 
owing  to  the  general  lack  of  knowledge,  errors  in 
diet  are  far  from  uncommon.  Stunted  growth  and 
retarded  development  in  children,  and  various  dis- 
orders in  adults,  may  often  be  traced  to  this  cause. 
Waste  of  resources  is  another  consequence,  and, 
for  the  poorer  classes  at  least,  a  very  serious  one. 
The  effects  of  an  occasional  indiscretion  may  be 
almost  imperceptible  if  the  normal  diet  of  the  indi- 
vidual be  well  adapted  to  his  requirements  ;  it  is 
the  systematic  error  that  it  is  important  to  guard 
against. 

The  vague  and  indefinite  phraseology  used  in 
describing  foods  is,  no  doubt,  responsible  for  the 
inaccuracy  of  many  of  the  popular  notions. 
*'  Rich,"  "  strong "  and  similar  expressions  are 
used  in  different,  sometimes  in  contradictory, 
senses,  and  not  infrequently  without  any  definite 
meaning  at  all.  Terms  such  as  nutritious,  fatten- 
ing, digestible,  are  imperfectly  understood.  Cost 
and  value  are  often  confused. 

The  confusion  of  ideas  is  particularly  striking  in 
connexion  with  the  use  of  the  word  nutritious. 
Synonyms  might  easily  be  found  for  it,  but  it  is  by 
no  means  easy  to  define  it.  All  foods  are  nutritious 
— otherwise  they  could  not  properly  be  called  foods. 
When  one  food  contains  a  larger  proportion  of 
nutritive  substances  than  another,  it  is  commonly 
said  to  be  more  nutritious  ;  but  it  would  be  more 
accurate  to  say,  simply,  that  it  is  more  ccncen- 


INTRODUCTORY  6 

trated.  A  pound  of  bread  contains,  roughly,  about 
four  times  as  much  nourishment  as  a  pound  of  pota- 
toes, and  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  more  nutri- 
tious. But,  on  this  hypothesis,  a  pound  of  bread 
is  not  more  nutritious  than  four  pounds  of  potatoes. 

Highly  concentrated  foods  have  their  special 
uses  ;  so  also  have  those  of  more  bulky  character. 
The  concentration  of  the  foods  is  perhaps  more 
important  when  they  are  considered  with  reference 
to  their  cost  than  in  any  other  connexion. 

A  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of  the  nutritive 
matters  of  foods  is  usually  present  in  such  a  con- 
dition that  it  cannot  be  assimilated  and  is,  there- 
fore, said  to  be  indigestible.^  No  nourishment 
can  be  derived  from  this  material ;  it  simply  passes 
through  the  intestines  and  is  excreted  unchanged. 
Two  foods  which  contain  the  same  proportions  of 
nutritive  matter  will  not,  therefore,  be  equally 
nutritious  unless  they  are  equally  digestible.  For 
example,  suppose  the  digestibility  of  an  egg  to  be 
affected — adversely  or  otherwise — by  cooking,  the 
egg  would  be  rendered  less,  or  more,  nutritious 
accordingly,  though  the  amount  of  nutrients  re- 
mained the  same. 

The  nature  of  the  nutrients  must  also  be  taken 
into  consideration.  For  present  purposes,  they 
may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.  nitro- 
genous and  non-nitrogenous.  They  are  some- 
times referred  to  as  flesh-formers  and  heat-producers, 
respectively.  This  distinction  was  introduced 
some  years  ago  in  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  scien- 
tific terms  ;    but  it  is  radically  unsound  and  has 

^  The  term  digestibility  is  also  used  with  reference  to 
the  length  of  time  the  food  remains  in  the  stomach.  (See 
p.  22.) 


6         ;  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

proved  misleading.  The  "  flesh-formers  "  produce 
more  heat  than  some  of  the  so-called  "  heat-pro- 
ducers '* ;  and  the  latter  are  intimately  connected 
with  the  phenomena  of  tissue  formation.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  they  have  different  functions, 
and  there  can  be  no  true  comparison  between 
foods  in  which  the  relative  proportions  of  these 
ingredients  vary  widely. 

The  foods  in  which  nitrogenous  nutrients  pre- 
dominate— chiefly  those  of  animal  origin — are 
generally  the  more  expensive  ;  and  this  appears 
to  have  given  rise  to  a  widespread  belief  that  these 
foods  are  the  more  nutritious.  It  may  be  true  that 
many  people  would  do  better  if  the  proportion  of 
nitrogenous  nutrients  in  their  food  were  increased. 
It  is  true  that,  within  certain  limits,  an  excess  of 
these  constituents  is  harmless,  and  that  a  deficiency 
is  fatal ;  but  the  generalization  above  referred  to 
is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely  rash.  It  is  also  com- 
monly held  that  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients — 
especially  starch  and  sugar — are  essentially  and 
intrinsically  fattening.  It  is  not  a  little  curious 
that  these  two  opinions  should  be  frequently  enter- 
tained by  the  same  persons,  for  the  one  is  a  manifest 
contradiction  of  the  other. 

Neither  nutrition  nor  fattening  is  attributable 
to  any  single  constituent  of  the  food  ;  they  depend 
largely  upon  the  proportions  of  the  two  classes  of 
nutrients.  The  proportions  required  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  circumstances  ;  but  when — and  only 
when — ^all  the  other  requirements  of  the  body  have 
been  satisfied,  the  excess  of  either  kind  may  be 
stored  up  as  fat. 

Persons  who  for  any  reason  desire  to  reduce 
their  weight — chiefly  athletes  in  training  and  those 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

who  have  a  disposition  towards  obesity — ^are  fre- 
quently quite  eccentric  about  their  diet ;  they  shun 
potatoes  and  certain  other  kinds  of  food,  take  all 
their  bread  toasted,  eat  raw  or  only  partially  cooked 
meat,  and  so  on.  In  some  cases  the  systems 
adopted  involve  considerable  self-denial  for  which 
there  is  no  necessity.  The  purpose  could  usually 
be  accomplished  equally  well  on  a  rational  ordinary 
diet  if  properly  regulated. 

Comparisons  of  one  food  with  another  are  apt 
to  be  misleading  unless  all  the  circumstances  are 
taken  into  account.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that,  whereas  bread  contains  four  or  five  times 
as  much  nutritive  matter  as  an  equal  weight  of 
potatoes  and  is  not  less  digestible,  it  is  difficult  to 
see  what  advantage  is  gained  by  substituting  the 
former  for  the  latter  in  the  diet  of  a  person  who 
wishes  to  reduce  weight. 

Bread  may  possibly  be  rendered  more — or  less — 
digestible  by  toasting,  but  the  amount  of  nutritive 
matter  in  it  is  not  perceptibly  altered.  As,  how- 
ever, a  certain  amount  of  moisture  escapes  in  the 
process,  what  is  left — the  toast — is  more  concen- 
trated than  the  fresh  bread.  Possibly  some  people 
may  find  toast  less  fattening  because  they  eat  less 
of  it.  In  that  case,  of  course,  it  is  merely  a  question 
of  the  quantity  and  not  of  the  condition  of  the  bread. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  raw,  or  semi-raw, 
meat  is  more  nutritious  than  that  which  has  been 
moderately  cooked.  The  latter  is  more  easily 
masticated,  and  probably  on  that  account  more 
readily  digestible  ;  ^  and  as  it  is  drier  it  contains 

^  The  contrary  has  been  maintained  but  the  evidence 
on  this  subject  is  not  very  satisfactory.  j 


8  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

actually  a  larger  proportion  of  nutritive  matter 
than  the  same  meat  in  the  raw  condition.  In  this 
case  also,  the  quantity  eaten  must  be  taken  into 
account.  A  certain  amount  of  loss  is  incidental 
to  nearly  all  processes  of  cooking  (see  p.  144),  but 
if  the  cooking  be  not  overdone,  the  loss  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  very  great.  When  meat  is  over-cooked  it  is 
probably  rendered  less  digestible  than  that  which 
is  underdone,  and  the  incidental  loss  is  much 
greater.  The  notion  that  raw  meat  is  the  more 
nutritious  may  be  attributable  to  this  fact. 

Soups  and  meat  extracts  are  popularly  supposed 
to  be  very  nourishing,  and  are  frequently  admin- 
istered to  invalids  on  that  account.  The  term 
*'  essence  of  beef  "  and  similar  expressions  found 
in  the  advertisements  of  commercial  preparations 
of  this  kind,  are  probably  intended  to  encourage 
this  idea.  But  if  it  be  true,  as  indicated  above, 
that  the  loss  of  nourishing  matter,  resulting  from 
the  moderate  cooking  (boiling)  of  meat,  is  not  very 
great,  it  follows  that  there  cannot  be  much  in  the 
broth  so  prepared.  If  the  meat  be  "  boiled  to 
rags  "  the  loss  will  be  considerable,  but  the  amount 
of  nutrients  in  the  soup  will  not  be  correspondingly 
large.  Much  of  the  substance  extracted  from  meat 
by  boiling  or  stewing  undergoes  a  partial  decom- 
position whereby  its  nourishing  properties  are  greatly 
reduced.  The  products,  however,  impart  an  agree- 
able, appetizing  flavour  and  odour  to  the  broth, 
and  they  have  a  marked  stimulating  effect  which 
may  be  highly  beneficial  to  invalids  or  to  persons 
suffering  from  bodily  or  nervous  exhaustion.  Soups 
which  have  been  thickened  by  the  admixture  of 
considerable  quantities  of  flour,  barley,  fresh  veget- 
ables,   etc.,   are,    of    course,   an   entirely   different 


INTRODUCTORY  d 

case.  Each  of  these  foods  possesses  a  definite 
nutritive  value  of  its  own  ;  but  this  value  is  not 
altered — ^neither  increased  nor  diminished — by- 
mixing  the  foods  with  the  "  stock  ''  or  soup  proper. 

With  very  few  exceptions,  foods  do  not  react 
upon  or  affect  each  other  in  any  way ;  they  do 
not,  therefore,  become  more  nutritious  when  mixed 
together.  It  is  highly  advantageous  to  partake  of 
certain  different  kinds  of  foods,  e.g.  meat  and 
potatoes,  in  conjunction  ;  but  nothing  is  gained 
by  actually  mixing  them.  The  nutritive  value  of, 
say  an  egg  and  milk,  or  bread  and  milk,  is  no  greater 
than  that  of  the  same  two  foods  taken  separately 
at,  or  about,  the  same  time.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  foods  are  rendered  much  more  palatable  or 
agreeable  by  mixing.  Half  the  art  of  cookery 
consists  in  the  concoction  of  such  judicious  mix- 
tures ;  and,  since  the  nutritive  value  of  the  foods 
is  not  affected,  there  is  no  reason  why  taste  should 
not  be  gratified  in  this  way. 

The  nutritive  value  of  certain  foods  has  sometimes 
been  attributed  to  wrong  causes,  and  in  other  cases 
it  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  Milk  and  eggs 
are  cases  in  point. 

Milk  is  a  very  useful  and  valuable  food.  It  is 
pre-eminently  suitable  for  young  children  and 
invalids.  It  has  been  called  a  perfect  food.  This, 
however,  is  an  exaggeration  except  in  its  appli- 
cation to  infants.  For  adults,  there  is  no  perfect 
food  ;  their  requirements  vary,  but  they  are  not 
the  same  as  those  of  children.  Milk  is  recommended 
for  invalids,  not  because  it  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  nutritive  matter,  but  largely  for  the 
contrary  reason,  i.e.  because  it  is  not  too  concen- 
trated ;    even  so,  it  is  often  necessary  to  dilute  it. 


10  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  nutritive  matter  in  milk  is  present  in  smaller 
proportion  than  in  many  other  foods  ;  but  it  is 
present  in  such  a  condition  that  it  is  very  easily 
assimilated.  It  is  chiefly  to  this  fact  that  milk 
owes  both  its  special  and  its  general  utility. 

The  statement  that  skim  milk  and  butter  milk 
are  more  nutritious  than  fresh  whole  milk  can 
scarcely  be  called  a  popular  fallacy,  as  it  is  not 
generally  accepted,  though  often  repeated.  At 
any  rate,  it  is  absurd.  It  probably  originated  with 
some  one  obsessed  with  a  morbid  love  of  paradox. 
The  amount  of  nourishment  in  a  food  cannot  be 
increased  by  abstracting  a  portion  of  it. 

Eggs  are  commonly  regarded  as  a  highly  nutri- 
tious food,  but  they  are  somewhat  sparingly  used 
"  because  they  are  so  dear.''  But  if  eggs  contain 
more  nourishment  than  other  foods,  they  may  be 
actually  cheaper,  even  at  a  relatively  higher  price. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  eggs  do  not  contain  so  large  a 
proportion  of  nourishment  as  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed ;  and  compared  with  many  other  foods,  they 
are  dear.  That  is  to  say,  that  the  same  amount  of 
nourishment  could  be  obtained  from  other  foods  at 
less  cost. 

In  the  celebrated  system  of  Banting,  great  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  quantity  of  liquids  consumed  ; 
and  many  people  entertain  the  ridiculous  notion 
that  water  itseK  is  fattening.  In  Banting's  case 
the  restriction  referred  chiefly  to  the  use  of  alcoholic 
beverages  which,  when  taken  in  large  quantities, 
have  a  tendency  to  increase  weight.  This  effect, 
however,  is  due,  not  to  the  water,  but  to  the  solids, 
of  which  malt  liquors  and  certain  wines  contain  a 
considerable  proportion.  In  the  treatment  of  obes- 
ity, restriction  of  the  quantity  of  water  frequently 


INTRODUCTORY  11 

leads  to  a  reduction  of  weight ;  but  it  has  been  shown 
that  this  result  is  due  simply  to  reduction  of  the 
quantity  of  water  in  the  body,  and  that  the  quan- 
tity of  fat  is  scarcely  affected  one  way  or  the  other. 
It  may  be  questioned  whether  it  is  wise  to  effect 
a  reduction  of  weight  in  this  way.  If  less  than  a 
certain  minimum  quantity  of  water  be  consumed 
daily,  health  and  comfort  will  suffer.  Medical 
men  consider  that  many  people — especially  women — 
do  not  drink  enough.  A  very  large  excess  of  water 
may  also  prove  injurious  ;  but  considerably  more 
than  is  actually  necessary  may  be  taken  without 
any  perceptible  effect  whatever.  Any  normal 
healthy  individual  may  safely  drink  as  much  water 
as  he  feels  inclined  to. 

Another  notion,  which  still  lingers,  is  that  "  fish 
is  good  for  the  brain  because  it  contains  a  large 
proportion  of  phosphorus."  It  is  probably  true 
that  fish  is  good  for  the  brain,  not  for  the  reason 
alleged,  but  because,  being  readily  digestible,  it  is 
good  for  the  stomach.  Many  brain  workers  prefer 
fish  to  meat  for  luncheon  on  this  account.  The 
theory  of  Buclmer,^  Ohne  Phosphor  Jcein  Gedenkey 
on  which  the  notion  is  apparently  founded,  is  not 
supported  by  reliable  evidence,  and  is  now  dis- 
credited. There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
proportion  of  phosphorus  in  other  foods  is  insuffi- 
cient for  the  nourishment  of  the  brain  as  well  as 
other  parts  of  the  body.  Some  foods,  e.g.  eggs, 
contain  a  larger  proportion  of  phosphorus  than  fish 
does.  The  shimmering  or  so-called  phosphores- 
cent appearance  that  fish  exhibits  in  the  dark  is  no 
evidence  of  the  presence  of  phosphorus — ^a  substance 

1  Kraft  und  Stoff. 


12  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

which  in  that  condition  is  intensely  poisonous.  The 
phosphorescent  appearance  is  due  to  the  action  of 
certain  bacteria,  and  is  a  sign  of  incipient  decom- 
position. 

The  Hst  of  popular  fallacies  concerning  food 
might  be  extended  indefinitely  ;  but  they  cannot  be 
properly  discussed  at  this  stage,  and  nothing  is 
gained  by  multiplying  the  instances  of  erroneous 
ideas.  The  only  effective  way  of  dealing  with  them 
is  by  systematic  statement  of  the  truth  so  far  as  it 
is  known. 


CHAPTER   11 
THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NUTRITION 

It  is  certain  that  the  bodies  of  all  animals  are  in 
a  constant  flux,  from  that  never  ceasing  attrition 
which  there  is  in  every  part  of  them. 

Butler's  Analogy. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  the  body  is  made  up 
mainly  of  the  skeleton,  flesh,  organs  or  viscera, 
and  the  blood  and  nervous  systems. 

The  heart  and  lungs  are  situated  in  the  chest  or 
thorax,  and  are  commonly  referred  to  as  the  thoracic 
viscera.  The  remainder,  consisting  chiefly  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  i.e.  the  stomach,  gut  or  intestines, 
and  the  glands  connected  with  the  same,  are  situ- 
ated in  the  belly  or  abdomen,  and  are  collectively 
known  as  the  abdominal  viscera. 

The  relative  proportions  in  which  these  various 
parts  contribute  to  the  mass  of  the  body  are  esti- 
mated to  be,  on  the  average,  as  follows  : — 

Estimated  Avebaqb  Pboportion  of  Parts  in  the  Body. 

Per  cent. 
Flesh  (including  fat  and  skin)    .         .         .66 

Skeleton 16 

Viscera  (thoracic  and  abdominal)         .  .       9 

Blood 7 

Brain  and  nerves       .....       2 


100 
18 


14  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

By  multiplying  each  of  these  items  by  |  we 
should  obtain  approximately  the  actual  weight  of 
each,  in  a  person  of  150  lbs.  weight,  which  is  about 
the  average  weight  of  a  full  grown  man. 

The  lungs  are  chiefly  concerned  with  respiration. 
The  air,  which  is  inhaled  by  their  action,  is  absorbed 
by  the  blood  and  so  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  system. 
In  this  way  all  the  tissues  are  subjected  to  a  con- 
tinuous process  of  gentle  oxidation,  which  is  the 
very  essence  of  life  and  which  has  several  conse- 
quences, highly  important  from  a  dietetic  point  of 
view. 

The  oxidation  which  takes  place  in  animal  bodies 
may  be  compared  to  a  smouldering  fire.  It  is 
actually  and  in  truth,  a  process  of  slow  combustion. 
The  warmth  or  heat  of  the  body  is  produced  by  it. 
The  substance  is  gradually  consumed,  and  fresh 
fuel,  i.e.  food,  must  be  constantly  supplied  in  order 
to  maintain  it. 

If  fuel  be  added  to  a  smouldering  heap  more 
quickly  than  it  is  consumed,  the  mass  will  be 
increased.  If  it  be  not  added  so  quickly,  the  mass 
will  be  gradually  diminished  and  in  time  combus- 
tion will  cease.  But  if  fuel  be  added  to  the  heap 
at  exactly  the  same  rate  as  it  is  consumed,  the  mass 
will  remain  practically  constant. 

The  nourishment  of  animal  bodies  by  food  is  an 
exactly  parallel  case.  If  the  quantity  of  food  be 
not  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  loss  of  substance 
due  to  oxidation,  the  body  loses  weight,  and  will 
ultimately  die  of  starvation.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  more  material  be  absorbed  than  is  lost  by  oxida- 
tion in  the  same  time,  the  excess  can  be  stored  up, 
and  increase  of  weight  results.  The  normal  case 
is  that  in  which  the  quantity  of  food  absorbed  into 


THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NUTRITION     15 


the  system  is  just  sufficient  to  make  good  the  loss, 
and  neither  gain  nor  loss  of  weight  occurs. 

The  food  by  which  the  body  is  nourished  under- 
goes many  transformations.  It  is  first  digested, 
then  absorbed  and  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the 
system. 

The  process  of  di- 
gestion is  performed 
by  various  fluids 
called  digestive 
juices,  to  the  action 
of  which  the  food  is 
successively  exposed. 
The  digestive  juices 
contain  certain  pecu- 
liar products,  called 
enzemes  or  unorgan- 
ized ferments,  which 
act  upon  the  various 
constituents  of  the 
food  and  cause  them 
to  undergo  the 
changes  about  to  be 
described. 

Digestion  begins 
in  the  mouth.  In 
the  process  of  masti- 
cation the  food  be- 
comes mixed  with 
saliva.  This  fluid 
contains  a  ferment 
which  acts  upon  the 
starchy     matter    of  ^^^-  ^• 

hrf^a  c\    n  n  rl     f  a  rin  o  no        Alimentary  canal,  showing  tlie  mouth  (M) ; 
Uieau    ana     larmace-         gullet(G);  stomach  (5);  duodenum  (D); 

OUS    foods,   and    con-        '"'^^^^''^''^'and^rVctum  (i^'*^^^ 


16  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

verts  it  into  a  soluble  sugar-like  compound  which 
is  afterwards  easily  absorbed. 

In  the  stomach,  the  food  is  acted  on  by  the  gastric 
juice.  This  is  of  quite  a  different  character  from 
saliva.  It  is  slightly  acid,  and  contains  a  ferment 
called  pepsin,  which  acts  on  the  albuminoid  or 
protein  compounds  such  as  the  lean  of  meat.  The 
latter  are  thereby  converted  into  soluble  forms  called 
peptones,  and  are,  therefore,  said  to  be  peptonized. 

The  partially  digested  food  passes  from  the 
stomach  into  the  intestine  which  also  receives  the 
secretions  from  two  large  and  important  glands 
called,  respectively,  the  liver  and  the  pancreas. 

The  secretion  from  the  liver  is  called  bile  ;  it  is 
chiefly  concerned  with  the  digestion  of  fats.  The 
latter  do  not  entirely  lose  the  fatty  character,  but 
become  emulsified,  i.e.  broken  up  into  extremely 
minute  particles  of  a  semi-liquid  character,  which 
remain  diffused  through  the  fluid  in  which  they  are 
suspended.  This  condition,  it  will  be  seen,  some- 
what resembles  that  of  the  cream  in  fresh 
milk. 

The  pancreatic  juice,  though  it  differs  from  both 
the  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice,  possesses  peculiar 
properties  which  enable  it  to  perform,  to  some  extent, 
the  functions  of  both.  It  acts  upon  starchy  mat- 
ters which  have  escaped  the  action  of  the  saliva, 
and  also  upon  protein  compoimds  which  have  not 
been  completely  digested  in  the  stomach.  These 
effects  are  due  to  the  action  of  ferments  similar  to 
those  previously  referred  to. 

As  digestion  proceeds,  the  food  is  reduced  first 
to  a  sloppy  condition  and  finally  to  a  liquid  state. 
This  fluid  is  of  a  milky  consistency,  and  is  called 
chyme.    As  it  passes  downwards,  it  is  absorbed  by 


THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NUTRITION     17 

hair-like  processes,  called  villi,  which  project  from 
the  walls  of  the  intestiae. 

Within  the  walls  of  this  tube,  the  constituents 
of  the  food  which  has  been  absorbed  undergo  fur- 
ther changes,  and  soon  pass  into  the  blood  vessels 
with  which  the  intestine  is  abundantly  supplied. 

The  smaller  vessels  unite  to  form  the  larger  ones 
by  which  the  blood  is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  system  is  much  too  complex  to  be 
described  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  larger 
vessels  branch  in  various  directions,  and  branch 
again,  gradually  diminishing  in  size,  and  end  finally 
in  a  close  meshwork  of  fine  capillaries  in  intimate 
contact  with  the  tissues  with  which  they  are  associ- 
ated. 

The  walls  of  these  capillary  vessels  are  very  thin, 
and  some  of  the  blood  plasma  exudes  through  them. 
This  fluid  is  called  the  lymph.  It  fills  up  all  the 
spaces  between  the  cells  and  thoroughly  bathes 
the  tissues,  which  are  nourished  and  restored  by  it. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  waste  due  to  oxidation  is 
repaired. 

The  lymph  is  then  drained  ojff  by  a  special  set  of 
vessels  called  the  lymphatics,  and  is  ultimately 
returned  to  the  blood  to  be  reoxidized  in  the  lungs, 
and  fortified  again  by  additions  from  the  intestines. 

It  will  be  seen  that  digestion  consists  essentially 
in  the  reduction  of  solid  foods  to  the  liquid  state, 
in  which  alone  they  can  be  absorbed  and  pass  into 
the  system.  Surplus  and  indigestible  portions  of 
the  food,  i.e.  any  solid  matter  which  has  not  been 
dissolved,  or  otherwise  rendered  fluid,  by  the  action 
of  the  digestive  juices,  together  with  any  excess  of 
the  latter,  effete  membranes,  etc.,  pass  right  through 
the  intestine  and  are  excreted  as  faeces. 


18  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  term  digestibility  refers  to  the  rapidity  and 
thoroughness  with  which  food  is  transformed  into 
chyme.  Obviously,  it  depends  partly  on  the  indivi- 
dual and  partly  on  the  food.  If  one  of  two  different 
foods,  or  portions,  of  food  undergo  this  transforma- 
tion more  rapidly  or  more  thoroughly  than  the  other 
in  a  given,  normal  individual,  it  is  said  to  be  more 
digestible. 

The  digestibility  of  any  food  depends  upon  a 
number  of  circumstances  of  which  the  following  are 
the  more  important : — 

1.  The  Extent  of  Surface. 

The  greater  the  extent  of  surface  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  digestive  juices  the  more  rapidly  will 
the  process  be  accomplished.     The  extent  of  surface 
is  greatly  increased  by  pulverizing  and  disintegrat- 
ing the  food  before  it  is  swallowed.     This  is  generally 
effected  by  chewing,  and  it  is  one  of  the  ends  to  be 
served  by  thorough  mastication.     Food  swallowed  in 
lumps  is  not  so  much  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
ferments,  and  it  may  be  excreted  practically  un- 
changed.    In  that  case  comparatively  little  nour- 
ishment will  be  derived  from  it ;   if  not  discharged, 
it  tends  to  block  the  passage  and  hinders  the  other 
processes.      Tough    meats     should,    therefore,    be 
minced  ;    if  very  hard,  they  should  be  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  potted  or  sausage  meat.     This  not 
only  makes  them  more  readily  digestible,  but  it  has 
the  further  advantage  that  it  affords  an  opportunity 
of  ^making  them^more  appetizing  by  mixing,  spicing 
and  garnishing  in  various  ways.    Some  of  the  cheaper 
meats,  e.g.,  Hghts,  hearts,  etc.,  which  are  so  hard 
or  tasteless  as  to  be  practically  imeatable,  can  be 
profitably  used  when  so  treated, 


THE  PHYSIOLOGY   OF  NUTRITION     19 

The  flesh  of  nimble  and  active  creatures,  such  as 
deer,  goats  and  wild  birds,  is  generally  tougher  than 
that  of  the  more  sedentary  sheep,  oxen  and  barn- 
yard fowls.  Newly  killed  meat,  too,  is  tougher 
than  that  which  has  been  "  hung  "  for  a  few  days, 
because  the  rigor  mortis — the  rigidity  of  the  body 
which  sets  in  shortly  after  death — ^gradually  passes 
away.  Fowls  and  other  small  animals,  which  can 
be  killed  on  the  premises,  may  sometimes  be  cooked 
before  rigor  mortis  sets  in,  and  may  thus  be  obtained 
in  a  tender  condition  in  warm  weather  without  risk 
of  decomposition.  In  the  case  of  butcher's  meat, 
this  is  not  usually  convenient. 

The  tissues  both  of  animals  and  vegetables  be- 
come tougher  as  they  get  older.  In  vegetables — • 
and  especially  in  green  vegetables — the  proportion 
of  woody  fibre  increases  very  rapidly  after  a  certain 
stage.  This  material  is  difficult  to  masticate,  is 
very  resistant  to  the  action  of  the  digestive  juices, 
and  apt  to  produce  flatulence.  Cereals,  e.g.  wheat 
and  oats,  are  generally  either  crushed  or  gromid, 
and,  it  appears,  the  more  finely  they  are  ground  the 
better.  Green  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage,  are 
sometimes  "  mashed,"  but  if  they  have  already  got 
to  the  tough  stage,  they  will  not  be  much  improved 
thereby,  as  the  process  of  mashing  has  very  little 
effect  upon  the  fibre.  The  admixture  of  butter  or 
other  fat  with  mashed  potatoes  has  an  adverse 
effect  on  the  digestibility ;  the  fat  tends  to  protect 
the  constituents  from  the  action  of  the  aqueous 
digestive  juices,  and  it  causes  the  substance  to 
cohere  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  swallowed  in 
clots  unmixed  with  saliva.  Quite  a  different  effect 
is  produced  by  crushing  potatoes  in  a  perforated 
presser  ;    by  this  means  any  hard  lumps   are    re- 


20  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

duced  or  eliminated,  the  extent  of  surface  is  greatly 
increased,  and  the  substance  is  rendered  more 
digestible. 

2.  The    Activity    of    the    Digestive    Juices. 

Many  substances  retard  or  inhibit  the  action  of 
ferments.  They  are  called  antiseptics.  Some  of 
them,  e.g.  formalin,  borax,  salicylic  acid,  common 
salt,  etc.,  are  used  as  preservatives  for  food.  If 
they  do  preserve  the  food  from  the  action  of  fer- 
ments, they  must  render  it  less  digestible.  In 
some  respects  digestion  closely  resembles  the 
initial  stages  of  decay.  A  certain  amount  of  salt  is 
necessary,  but  excess  is  probably  injurious,  for  the 
reasons  given  above.  Much  of  the  salt  or  other 
substances  used  to  preserve  bacon,  fish,  etc.,  can  be 
extracted  with  water  before  cooking,  and  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  food  is  thereby  increased. 

The  ferments  act  best  at,  or  about,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body,  and  very  hot  liquids,  e.g.  tea, 
soup,  or  cold  substances,  such  as  iced  foods  or  water, 
tend  to  retard  their  action.  If  these  substances  are 
slowly  sipped,  they  will  be  comparatively  innoxious, 
as  they  will  be  cooled,  or  warmed,  before  reaching 
the  stomach,  and  can  only  affect  the  saliva  ;  but  if 
they  are  taken  in  gulps  along  with  food,  the  tempera- 
ture effects  may  be  considerable.  Cold  liquids 
have  also  a  tendency  to  consolidate  fats  and  so 
reduce  digestibility. 

3.  A  Suitable  Proportion  of  Water. 

A  certain  amount  of  water  is  required  to  form  the 
juices,  and  to  dissolve  and  carry  off  the  products 
resulting  from  their  action.  Insufficiency  of  water, 
therefore,  tends  to  retard  digestion.     Highly  con- 


THE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NUTRITION     21 

centra  ted  foods  like  cereals,  etc.,  require  to  be  cooked 
with  a  large  quantity  of  water.  Some  persons  can 
take  oatmeal  porridge  only  if  it  is  "  made  very 
thin,"  others  cannot  take  it  unless  it  is  diluted  to 
the  condition  of  gruel.  Dried  meats,  fish  and  fruits, 
are  less  digestible  than  the  same  foods  in  a  fresh 
condition  ;  this  has  been  attributed  to  deficiency 
of  water,  but  it  may  be  due,  in  part,  also,  to  other 
causes.  Excess  of  water  taken  along  with  food, 
by  unduly  diluting  the  juices,  also  renders  them 
less  effective  and  retards  digestion. 

In  general,  the  constituents  of  animal  foods  are 
more  completely  digested  than  those  of  vegetables  ; 


Digestibility  of  Foods  (Atwateb). 
{Proportions  digested). 


Percentages  Digested. 

Percentages 

Digested. 

Aniina.1 

1       Vegetable 
1         Foods. 

Foods. 

Pro- 

Fat. 

Carbo- 

Pro- 

Fat. 

Carbo- 

tein. 

hydrates 

i 

tein. 

hydrates 

P.  ct. 

P.ct. 

P.  ct. 

i                    [ 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

P.ct. 

Beef       .     . 

100 

95 

;  Wlieat  flour 

Veal       .     . 

100 

95 

— 

(fine)     . 

85 

id 

r—i 

Mutton 

100 

95 

— 

Do. 

03 

d 

Pork     .      . 

100 

95 

— 

(medium) 

81 

& 

a 

Fish    and 

Do. 

TJ 

t3 

Oysters 

100 

95 

— 

(coarse) 

75 

0 

Milk      .      . 

100 

96 

100 

Rice     . 

85 

§ 

Cheese 

100 

95 

100 

Macaroni  . 

85 

1 

i 

Butter 

— 

96 

— 

Rye  flour  . 

78 

Margarine 

— 

95 

— 

Maize-meal 

85 

1 

i 

Tallow 

— 

95 

— 

Potatoes   . 

75 

0 

s 

Lard     .      . 

— 

95 

— 

Cabbage    . 

80 

§3 

^ 

Oils       .      . 

— 

95 

— 

Turnips     . 

80 

ft 

ft 

Eggs     .      . 

100 

98 

Peas     .      . 
Beans 

85 
85 

o 

00 

§ 

22  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

the  latter  are  often  so  enclosed  in  the  cellular  and 
fibrous  tissues  with  which  they  are  associated  that 
they  are  protected  from  the  action  of  the  digestive 
juices.  A  certain  proportion  of  the  nutrients  in 
vegetable  foods  is  therefore  usually  excreted  un- 
changed in  the  faeces. 

Within  limits,  digestibility  is  not  affected  by  the 
amount  of  the  food,  bodily  work,  age  or  other  acci- 
dental circumstances,  and  it  does  not  vary  greatly 
in  different  individuals  in  normal  health. 

In  popular  language,  the  term  digestion  is  gener- 
ally used  exclusively  with  reference  to  the  processes 
which  take  place  in  the  stomach.  In  this  respect, 
the  differences  between  individuals  are  more  con- 
siderable. Weak  or  slow  gastric  digestion  arises 
from  immobility  of  the  organ,  or  from  defective 
secretion  of  ferments.  Too  rapid  secretion  of  gastric 
juice  causes  dyspepsia.  Persons  who  suffer  from 
these  disorders  are  not,  however,  necessarily  or 
usually  deficient  in  absorptive  capacity. 

Under  like  conditions,  the  time  occupied  in  gastric 
digestion  of  any  given  food  probably  does  not  vary 
much  in  normal  healthy  individuals.  But  con- 
siderable differences  have  been  observed  in  the 
digestibihty  of  different  kinds  of  food.  Some 
remain  much  longer  in  the  stomach  than  others  ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  these  should  be  avoided 
by  healthy  people,  as  they  are  ultimately  trans- 
formed into  chyme  without  discomfort  or  incon- 
venience. 

Observations  upon  the  length  of  time  that  various 
foods  remain  in  the  stomach  are  probably  reliable 
so  far  as  they  go.  They  are,  however,  of  very  little 
real  value  because,  apart  from  the  differences  in 
individuals,  the  time  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 


THE   PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NUTRITION     23 

food,  what  it  is  associated  with,  how  it  has  been 
prepared  and  cooked,  degree  of  mastication  and  so 
on.  It  is  said  that  beef  leaves  the  stomach  in  less 
time  than  pork,  but  it  is  probable  that,  ceteris 
'paribus,  a  tough  sample  of  beef  will  require  more 
time  than  one  of  tender  pork.  Also  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  various  joints  of  each  are  not  alike. 
Some  of  the  results  obtained  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  but  they  must  be  accepted  with  con- 
siderable reserve. 


*  Digestibility  of  Foods.  ' 

(Length  of  time  food  remains  in  stomach.) 


Animal  Foods. 

Vegetable  Foods. 

Beef,  raw  . 

2  hours 

Bread 

2  J  hours 

„     boiled    . 

3 

> 

Potatoes . 

2-2i     „ 

„     roasted. 

4 

> 

Rice  . 

H     » 

Eggs,  raw.      .      . 

2i 

» 

Lentils     . 

4 

„     soft  boiled  . 

n 

» 

Peas  . 

4i       „ 

„     hard  boiled 

3 

> 

Apple,  raw  . 

3i       „ 

Fresh  fish.      .      . 

2* 

» 

Cabbage  . 

3 

Salt  fish    .      .      . 

4 

> 

Cauliflower   . 

2i       „ 

*  Hutchiaon. 

When  ordinary  fuel  is  burned  in  a  fire,  the  prin- 
cipal products  of  the  change  are  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  water.  The  same  substances  are  also 
produced  by  the  oxidation  that  takes  place  m 
animal  bodies,  and  they  are  given  off  from  the  lungs 
in  respiration.  There  is,  however,  one  respect  in 
which  the  analogy  does  not  hold,  and  it  is  of  con- 
siderable importance.  When  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds are  consumed  by  fire,  the  nitrogen  is  liberated 


24  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

in  the  free  state,  and  escapes  with  the  other  products 
(carbonic  acid,  etc.)  ;  but  when  the  nitrogenous 
compounds,  ot  wliich  animal  bodies  are  largely 
composed,  are  oxidized  in  the  normal  course  of 
respiration,  the  change  takes  place  at  a  much  lower 
temperature,  and  the  nitrogen  appears  in  the  form 
of  a  compound  called  urea.  This  substance  is  non- 
volatile ;  it  does  not,  therefore,  escape  with  the 
other  gases  from  the  lungs,  but  passes  into  solution 
in  the  blood,  whence  it  is  eUminated  by  the  kidneys, 
and  is  discharged  in  the  urine.  ^ 

Excess  of  salt  and  certain  other  useless  or  effete 
matters  are  also  eliminated  from  the  blood  and 
discharged  in  the  same  way ;  the  latter  are,  how- 
ever, of  minor  importance  from  the  present  poiat 
of  view. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NUTRITION 


Der  Mensch  ist  was  er  isst. 


Feuerbach. 


A  VERY  large  number  of  chemical  compounds 
enter  into  the  chemical  composition  of  the  animal 
body.  For  present  purposes  they  may  all  be 
grouped  under  the  following  heads — ^albuminoids 
or  proteids,  fats,  water  and  the  so-called  mineral 
or  earthy  substances.  The  relative  proportions 
in  which  these  various  constituents  are  present 
vary  according  to  circumstances.  In  a  healthy 
adult  man,  the  average  may  be  approximately  as 
follows  : — 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 
(Dry). 

Water 

Fat 

Albuminoids 

Mineral  matter 

64 

18 

14 

4 

11 

100 

100 

The  red  flesh  or  muscular  tissue,  skin,  nerves, 
vessels  and  various  organs-— heart,  stomach,  liver, 


26 


26  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

etc. — all  consist  mainly  of  albuminoid  compomids 
mixed  or  associated  with  a  large  proportion — 70 
to  80  per  cent. — of  water.  The  substance  of  hair, 
cartilage  (nails,  etc.)  is  of  a  similar  nature,  and  even 
bones  contain  a  large  proportion  of  the  same 
material. 

Fat  is  found  in  largest  quantity  in  the  region  of 
the  kidneys  which  it  surrounds  and  encloses  ;  but 
it  also  occurs  in  masses  or  layers  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  body.  Fat  enters  into  the  composition 
of  bones,  and  it  is  usually  associated  also  with  the 
muscular  and  other  tissues  in  larger  or  smaller 
quantities.  Beefsteak,  free  from  all  visible  fat, 
contains  from  1  to  3  per   cent,  of  that  ingredient. 

The  earthy  or  mineral  matter  consists  mainly 
of  phosphate  of  lime.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  the  bones, 
and  it  is  to  the  presence  of  this  constituent  that 
bones  owe  their  hardness  and  rigidity.  The  pro- 
portion increases  with  advancing  age,  and  the  bones 
gradually  become  harder  and  more  brittle. 

Phosphate  of  lime,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a 
compound  ^  of  Hme  and  phosphoric  acid.  It  may 
be  formed  by  the  action  of  lime  on  other  phosphates, 
e.g.  phosphate  of  potash.  Phosphates  are  essential 
constituents  of  plants,  and  are,  therefore,  present 
in  nearly  all  vegetable  as  well  as  animal  foods. 
The  phosphate  of  hme  found  in  the  bones  is  derived 
from  this  source. 

Water  is  a  compound  of  two  chemical  elements 
called  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  respectively.  It  is 
produced  when  hydrogen,  or  compounds  of  hydro- 
gen, are  burned  or  otherwise  oxidized.  Being, 
itself,  a  product  of  oxidation,  water  does  not  bum, 

^  The  composition  is  shown  by  the  chemical  formula 
[CaCPaOg  or  C8i^{V0^)i. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NUTRITION      27 

i.e.  it  cannot  be  further  oxidized.  It  is  of  necessity 
well  known  to  every  one,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  into  any  further  description  of  its  properties. 

It  has  been  shown  above,  that  about  90  per  cent, 
of  the  dry  matter  of  human  bodies  consists  of  com- 
pounds classed  as  albuminoids  and  fats.  Both 
suffer  continual  loss  by  oxidation,  and  the  need  of 
food  arises  chiefly  from  the  necessity  of  constantly 
replacing  them.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 
only  substances  which  contain  these  compounds, 
or  constituents  capable  of  being  changed  into  them 
by  the  physiological  processes  to  which  they  are 
subject,  will  be  suitable  for  use  as  food. 

Meat,  bread,  vegetables  and  other  foods  contain 
albuminoids  and  fats,  and  some  of  them  a  number 
of  compounds  which  belong  to  a  different  class 
called  carbohydrates.  Experience  shows  that  the 
last-mentioned  may  be  used  to  satisfy  hunger,  and 
that  they  also  have  nutrient  properties. 

In  order  to  explain  this,  it  is  necessary  to  refer 
to  the  composition  and  properties  of  these  different 
classes  of  compounds,  and  show  their  relations, 
one  to  another.  They  are  all  complex  substances, 
and  the  complete  investigation  ranges  into  the 
most  difficult  branches  of  organic  chemistry.  All 
that  is  necessary  for  present  purposes,  however, 
is  tolerably  well  known,  and  is  not  difficult  to  follow. 

The  group  of  albuminoids  or  proteids,  as  they 
are  indifferently  ^  called,  comprises  a  large  number 
of  compounds.  Some  of  these,  e.g.  white  of  egg, 
milk  curd,  blood  clots,  lean  meat,  etc.,  are  externally 

^  The  terms  albuminoids  and  proteids  are  used  by  some 
authors  in  different  senses,  and  from  a  purely  chemical 
standpoint  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  do  so,  but  for 
present  purposes  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any  distinction. 


28 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


very  different ;  but  they  all  resemble  each  other 
very  closely  in  chemical  composition  ;  and  they 
exhibit  characteristic  properties  which  show  that 
they  belong  to  the  same  class.  They  are  composed 
of  the  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen 
and  sulphur.  The  proportions  of  the  elements  are 
constant  in  any  given  substance,  but  are  not  exactly 
the  same  in  all.  The  limits  of  variation  are,  how- 
ever, very  narrow,  and  in  no  case  does  the  com- 
position of  the  compounds  differ  much  from  the 
following,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  average  for 
the  group. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Albuminoids. 


Per  cent. 

Carbon     . 

.      52-2 

Hydrogen 

7-2 

Oxygen     . 

.      231 

Nitrogen  . 

.      15-9 

Sulphur    .          .          .          . 

16 

100-0 
Most  of  the  albuminoid  compounds  are  practically 
insoluble  in  water,  but  some  of  them,  like  white  of 
egg,  are  soluble.  Others,  though  insoluble  in  pure 
water,  are  soluble  in  solutions  of  salt  and  other 
reagents.  They  may  be  precipitated,  redissolved 
and  even  crystallized ;  they  form  many  curious 
compounds,  and  exhibit  various  interesting  pro- 
perties. They  all  undergo  a  curious  transformation 
called  coagulation,  which  profoundly  affects  their 
properties,  but  does  not  materially  alter  their  com- 
position. The  setting  or  hardening  of  eggs  on 
boiling,  curdling  of  milk,  and  clotting  of  blood  are 
familiar  examples  of  this  change.  Coagulation  may 
be  caused  by  heat,  by  certain  reagents,  e.g.  alcohol, 
tannin,  etc.,  and  by  certain  ferments  such  as  rennet. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NUTRITION      29 

All  albuminoids,  soluble  or  insoluble,  coagulated 
or  uncoagulated,  are  converted  into  peptones  by 
the  action  of  pepsin — the  ferment  of  the  gastric 
juice.  They  are  thus  rendered  readily  soluble 
and  diffusible  and,  therefore,  capable  of  absorption 
by  the  villi.  Peptones  belong  to,  and  exhibit  the 
characteristic  properties  of  the  albuminoid   group. 

When  albuminoids  are  burned  they  are  com- 
pletely oxidized  ;  the  constituent  elements — except 
nitrogen  which  is  liberated  in  the  free  state — unite 
with  oxygen,  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  water  and  oxide 
of  sulphur  are  formed.  For  100  parts  of  the  dry 
substance,  175  parts  of  oxygen,  in  addition  to  what 
it  already  contains,  are  required  to  complete  the 
change.  The  oxidation  of  albuminoid  compounds 
which  takes  place  in  the  course  of  animal  respira- 
tion is  not  complete — the  nitrogen  appears  in  the 
form  of  urea  ^ — and  only  148  parts  of  oxygen  are 
required. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  fat,  e.g  lard, 
tallow,  butter,  palm  oil,  linseed  oil,  etc.  Some 
are  of  animal,  and  others  of  vegetable  origin,  but 
they  all  resemble  each  other,  more  or  less  closely, 
in  composition  and  general  properties,  and  all 
belong  to  the  same  class  or  group. 

There  is  no  essential  difference  between  fats  and 
oils.  Those  which  remain  liquid  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures are  generally  called  oils,  and  the  more 
solid  are  called  fats.  The  solid  fats  melt  at  com- 
paratively low  temperatures,  and  in  that  state  are 
indistinguishable  from  oils. 

These  compoimds  are  not  so  complex  as  the 
albuminoids ;  they  contain  neither  sulphur  nor 
nitrogen.     Only  three  elements — carbon,  hydrogen 

^  Urea  is  represented  by  the  chemical  formula  NaH^CO- 


30 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


and  oxygen — enter  into  their  composition  ;  they 
are  always  united  together  in  a  similar  manner,  ^ 
but  the  proportions  vary  slightly  in  different 
members  of  the  group. 

Three  of  the  commonest  fats — ^known  respectively 
as  olein,  stearin  and  palmitin — contain  the  elements 
in  the  following  proportions  : — 


Olein. 

Stearin. 

Palmitin. 

Carbon 

Hydrogen  .... 
Oxygen 

(Percent.). 

773 
11-8 
10-9 

(per  cent. ). 

76-9 
123 
10-8 

(per  cent.). 

75-9 
12-2 
119 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  differences  in  composition 
are  comparatively  slight,  and  that,  in  all  three 
cases,  carbon  forms  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
whole. 

The  fats  and  oils  are  all  insoluble  in  water  and 
in  salt  solutions.  They  are  dissolved  by  the  action 
of  strong  alkalis,  which  converts  them  into  soap 
and  glycerine.  Under  certain  conditions,  they 
can  be  so  intimately  mixed  with  water  that  they 
remain  in  a  state  of  semi-permanent  suspension, 
without  losing  the  essential  properties  of  fats. 
Such  mixtures  are  called  emulsions  ;  they  are  most 
readily  formed  in  slightly  alkaline  solutions. 

*  The  pure  fats  are  all  glycerides  of  fatty  acids.  Stearin, 
one  of  the  commonest,  may  be  represented  by  the  chemical 
formula  C3H5(Ci8H3502)3.  The  natural  fats  are,  for  the 
most  part,  complex  mixtures  of  such  glycerides.  Butter 
contains  at  least  nine  different  compounds  of  this  kind. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NUTRITION      31 

When  fats  are  burned,  or  otherwise  oxidized, 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  are  produced.  Each 
100  parts  of  fat  (stearin),  require  292  parts  of  oxygen, 
in  addition  to  what  it,  itself,  contains,  to  com- 
pletely oxidize  it.  Fat,  it  will  be  seen,  combines 
with  nearly  twice  as  much  oxygen  as  an  equal 
weight  of  protein  when  oxidized  in  the  animal  system. 

The  carbohydrate  group  also  includes  a  large 
number  of  compounds,  some  of  which  are  externally 
very  dissimilar.  They  are  characteristically  vege- 
table products  ;  starch,  cellulose  and  some  others 
are  exclusively  so.  Sugars  and  one  or  two  other 
compounds  are  produced  by  animals  as  well  as 
plants,  e.g.    sugar  of  milk. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  sugar  besides  the 
ordinary  table  sugar.  The  latter  is  generally  called 
cane  sugar,  or  sucrose,  even  when  derived  from 
beet.  Milk  sugar  ^  resembles  cane  sugar  very 
closely,  but  is  not  quite  so  sweet  to  the  taste.  The 
sugars  commonly  found  in  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  of  a  different  character,  though  similar  in 
appearance  and  general  properties ;  they  are 
called  glucose^  and  fructose.^  All  sugars  are  soluble 
in  water,  and  can  be  directly  assimilated  by  animals 
without  change  of  any  kind.  When  yeast  grows 
in  a  solution  of  sugar,  the  latter  is  converted  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  This  change  takes 
place  in  the  manufacture  of  beer ;  it  is  called 
alcoholic  fermentation. 

Starch  ^  is  produced  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities 
by  nearly  all  plants,  and  is  an  important  constituent 

^  Cane  sugar  and  milk  sugar  are  represented  by  the 
chemical  formula  C12H22OH  ;  glucose  and  fructose,  by  the 
formula  CgHi20g. 

^  Starch,  cellulose,  dextrin  and  mucilage  are  all  repre- 
sented by  the  chemical  formula  CgH^oO^. 


32  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

of  potato  tubers,  cereal  grains  and  many  other 
foods.  It  is  made  up  of  minute  granules,  and  under 
the  microscope,  it  is  seen  that  these  vary  in  size 
and  exhibit  peculiar  markings  which  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  plant  from  which  the  starch  is  derived. 

There  is,  however,  no  difference  in  the  chemical 
composition,  and  very  little  difference  in  the  pro- 
perties of  the  several  kinds  of  starch. 

Starch  is  insoluble,  and  is  not  affected  by  cold 
water  ;  but  when  it  is  treated  with  boiling  water, 
the  grains  swell  up,  lose  their  characteristic  struc- 
ture, and  form  a  khid  of  paste  or  jelly.  The  starch, 
however,  is  not  even  then  dissolved.  When  heated 
in  the  dry  state  to  a  certain  temperature,  starch  is 
converted  into  dextrin,^  the  common  gum  used  for 
postage  stamps. 

By  the  action  of  certain  ferments  such  as  those 
found  in  saliva,  in  malt,  etc.,  and  also  by  the  action 
of  dilute  acids,  starch  is  resolved  into  glucose,  a 
kind  of  sugar  which,  it  has  been  said,  is  soluble, 
fermentable,  and  can  be  directly  assimilated. 
The  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar  by  the  action 
of  ferments  is  called  diastatic  fermentation.  The 
change  is  an  essential  part  of  the  process  of  di- 
gestion of  starchy  foods.  Dextrin  and  mucilage 
undergo  a  similar  change. 

Cellulose  ^  has  the  same  chemical  composition 
as  starch,  but,  except  in  very  young  plants,  it  is 
practically  indigestible,  and  is  consequently  of 
little  or  no  value  for  nutrient  purposes. 

Notwithstanding  the  differences  in  the  proper- 
ties of  sugars,  starch,  mucilages  and  cellulose, 
noted   above,    they   possess   certain   properties   in 

^  Starch,  cellulose,  dextrin  and  mucilage  are  all  repre- 
sented by  the  chemical  formula  C^HioO^. 


THE   CHEMISTRY  OF   NUTRITION      33 

common,  and  these  are  characteristic  of  the  whole 
carbohydrate  group.  They  are  composed  of  the 
same  chemical  elements  as  the  fats,  viz.,  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  in  very  different  propor- 
tions. They  do  not,  however,  differ  much  from 
each  other  in  this  respect,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  examples  : — 


Starch. 

Cane  Sugar. 

Glucose. 

Carbon 

Hydrogen    .... 
Oxygen        .... 

(per  cent.). 

44.4 

6-2 

49-4 

(per  cent. ). 

421 

6-4 

51-5 

(per  cent. ). 

40-0 

6-7 

53.3 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

The  carbohydrates  undergo  oxidation  even  more 
readily  than  the  fats,  but  the  products  are  the  same, 
viz.,  carbonic  acid  and  water.  As  they  contain  a 
relatively  larger  proportion  of  oxygen  than  the 
latter,  a  smaller  quantity  of  that  substance  is 
required  to  consume  them.  Thus,  100  parts  of 
starch  combine  with  118  parts  of  oxygen,  100  parts 
cane  sugar  combine  with  112  parts  of  oxygen, 
and  100  parts  of  glucose  combine  with 
107  parts  of  oxygen.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that,  on  the  average,  100  parts  of  carbohydrate 
require  112*5  parts  of  oxygen,  in  addition  to  what 
they  contain,  to  completely  oxidize  them. 

It  has  been  previously  shown  that  148  parts  of 
oxygen  are  required  to  oxidize  100  parts  of  protein 
and  292  parts  to  oxidize  100  parts  of  fat.  In  other 
words  fat  consumes  nearly  twice  as  much  oxygen 


34 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


as  an  equal  weight  of  protein,  and  2  J  times  as  much 
as  an  equal  weight  of  carbohydrates,  in  the 
process  of  oxidation. 

Now,  when  a  substance  is  oxidized,  heat  is  given 
out.  If  oxidation  take  place  rapidly,  as  in  burning, 
a  high  temperature  results  ;  but  if  it  take  place  more 

slowly,  as  in  respi- 
ration, the  tempera- 
ture will  be  corres- 
pondin gly  lower. 
The  amount  of  heat 
produced,  however, 
is  the  same  in  both 
cases.  For  sub- 
stances of  the  same 
kind,  the  amount  of 
heat  evolved  depends 
upon  the  amount  of 
oxygen  they  con- 
sume. 

The  heat  of  com- 
bustion, i.e.  the  heat 
of  oxidation,  can  be 
determined  by  means 
of  an  apparatus, 
called  a  calorimeter, 
of  the  kind  shown  in 
the  illustration  ^  (Fig. 
2).  The  results  are 
expressed  in  calories.  A  calorie  is  the  amount  of 
heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  gram, 
of  water  1°  C. 

The  following  average  results  have  been  ob- 
tained : — 

^  Bui.  21,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Ag. 


Fig.  2.  Section  of  Bomb- 
calorimeter. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OP  NUTRITION      35 

1  gram,  protein  yields  5,700  calories. 

1      „       fat  „       9,500     „ 

1      „       carbohydrate     „       4,100     „ 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  figures  bear  very  nearly 
the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  those  showing  the 
amount  of  oxygen  consumed. 

As  protein  is  not  completely  oxidized  in  the  body, 
it  consumes  less  oxygen  and  consequently  gives 
out  less  heat  than  is  shown  above.  The  heat  of 
combustion  of  the  products  (urea)  must,  therefore, 
be  deducted  in  order  to  obtain  the  physiological 
heat  value.  Taking  the  average  of  a  great  many 
determinations,  Riibner  puts  the  physiological  heat 
value  of  protein  at  4,100  calories,  i.e.  the  same  as 
that  of  the  carbohydrates.  Atwater's  estimate  of 
4,400  calories  is  probably  the  more  accurate,  but 
Riibner 's  is  the  one  commonly  used. 

The  calorie  is  inconveniently  small,  and  it  is 
usual  to  take  the  kilo-calorie  as  the  unit  for  physio- 
logical purposes.  A  kilo-calorie  is  1,000  calories. 
On  this  basis  the  factors  become  9-3  for  fat  and  4-1 
for  carbohydrates  and  protein.  Kilo-calories  may 
be  designated  by  the  symbol  "  Kal." 

The  facts  quoted  above — especially  those  relat- 
ing to  the  composition  and  oxidation  of  the  com- 
pounds, protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates — are  of 
fundamental  importance  in  regard  to  the  phenomena 
of  nutrition. 

These  compounds  are  the  principal  constituents  of 
food.  It  is  from  them  that  the  tissues  of  the  body 
are  built  up.  The  heat  produced  by  their  ultimate 
oxidation,  maintains  the  temperature  of  the  body 
and  furnishes  the  energy  required  for  the  perform- 
ance of  all  the  internal  and  external  work. 


36  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

Some  physiologists  speak  as  if  the  compounds 
were  directly  oxidized  in  the  blood.  It  is  more 
probable,  however,  that  they  are  first  changed  into 
actual  tissues  which  are  subsequently  oxidized. 
The  point  is  one  of  considerable  interest,  but  it 
need  not  be  discussed  here,  as  it  makes  no  difference 
to  the  amounts  of  oxygen  which  they  can  ultimately 
consume,  or  to  their  potential  capacities  as  heat  pro- 
ducers ;  in  other  words,  it  does  not  affect  the 
nutritive  or  food  value  of  the  compounds. 

It  has  been  shown  that  fat  and  carbohydrates 
are  composed  of  the  same  chemical  elements.  They 
do  not  resemble  each  other  very  closely,  but  each 
can  be  formed  from  the  other.  As  constituents  of 
food,  they  perform  the  same  functions  in  the  body. 
Both  are  used  to  form  fatty  tissue  which  undergoes 
oxidation  and  so  provides  the  heat  and  energy  for 
the  performance  of  work ;  but  any  excess  over 
what  is  required,  remains  unaffected  and  forms  an 
addition  of  fatty  tissue  to  the  body. 

Fat  and  carbohydrates  are  not,  however,  of  equal 
value  for  these  purposes.  According  to  Riibner 
their  heat-producing  values  stand  in  the  relation 
of  93  to  41  (vide  ante)  or  2 J  to  1,  and  they  bear 
a  like  relation  as  tissue  (fat)  formers.  Some  authori- 
ties ascribe  an  even  higher  value  to  the  fat.  They 
consider  1  lb.  of  fat  equal  to  2 J  lb.  of  carbohydrate, 
but  that  is  probably  too  high  for  the  average. 

It  is  evident  that  fat  and  carbohdyrates  cannot 
be  changed  into  protein,  for  they  lack  the  elements 
nitrogen  and  sulphur,  which  are  essential  constitu- 
ents of  the  latter. 

It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  protein 
of  animal  bodies  is  derived  from  the  protein  of  the 
food.     One  kind  of  proteid  may  be  transformed  into 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  NUTRITION      37 

another,  but  cannot  be  formed  from  non-proteid.^ 
The  amomit  of  protein  in  the  food  must,  therefore, 
be  sufficient  to  make  good  the  loss  of  protein  from 
the  body  ;  otherwise  the  animal  will  gradually  lose 
weight  and  will  ultimately  die  of  starvation,  i.e. 
nitrogen  starvation,  however  much  of  the  other 
constituents  may  be  present. 

But  protein,  like  other  constituents  of  the  food, 
also  undergoes  oxidation  and  gives  out  heat — its 
fuel  value  is  given  above — ^and  it  is  believed  that 

^  Many  foods  contain  a  number  of  other  nitrogenous 
compounds  such  as  gelatin,  amides,  etc.,  which  are  more 
or  less  closely  allied  to  protein  but  cannot  be  ranked  as 
true  proteids.  These  are  certainly  of  lower  nutritive 
value  ;  it  was  formerly  believed,  and  many  recognized 
authorities  still  hold,  that  they  have  no  nutritive  pro- 
perties. Recent  researches  have,  however,  tended  to 
throw  some  doubt  on  this  point.  When  protein,  is  decom- 
posed by  chemical  means  it  is  resolved  into  glycocine 
C2H5O2N  ;  leucine  CgHigOsN,  tyrosine  C9H11O3N,  cystine 
C6Hi204N2S2,  and  other  bodies  all  belonging  to  the  amino- 
acid  group  and  commonly  called  amides.  Protein  may 
be  split  up  in  a  similar  manner  by  prolonged  action  of 
ferments,  and  it  is  considered  probable  that  such  disinte- 
gration actually  takes  place  in  the  process  of  digestion, 
the  proteids  being  subsequently  re-synthesized,  after 
absorption,  in  the  walls  of  the  intestine.  In  that  case  it 
should  be  possible  to  maintain  life  by  the  ingestion  of  these 
products,  and  evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  this 
can  be  done.  Gelatin  alone,  has  been  proved  to  be  insuf- 
ficient because  it  contains  no  tryptophane,  tyrosine  or 
cystine  radicles ;  but  when  administered  along  with 
certain  amino-acid  bodies,  it  has  been  found  to  maintain 
life.  Dogs  and  rats  have  been  kept  alive  for  consider- 
able periods  on  a  mixture  of  aminoacids  without  gelatin. 

The  total  nitrogen  of  all  ordinary  foods  is  therefore 
usually  reckoned  as  protein,  though  it  is  probably  true  that 
the  amides  have  a  lower  nutritive  value  than  true  proteids. 
This  does  not  apply  to  gelatin,  meat  extracts  and  some 
other  substances  which  are  not  ordinary  foods. 


38  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

fat  is  produced  from  excess  of  protein  when  enough 
of  the  other  constituents  is  present  to  provide 
all  the  energy  required.  This  change  is  theoretically 
possible,  and  it  certainly  takes  place  in  some  cases, 
but  recent  experiments  have  made  it  doubtful 
whether  it  occurs  under  normal  conditions.  In  any 
case,  however,  it  is  not  the  proper  function  of  protein 
to  make  fatty  tissue.  Still  less  is  it  the  proper 
function  of  protein  to  furnish  heat,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  if  the  food  be  deficient  in  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates, protein  will  be  oxidized  to  furnish  the 
energy  required. 

This,  then,  is  another  function  of  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous constituents  of  the  food,  viz.,  to  spare  or  save 
the  protein  from  oxidation,  and  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  see  that  it  is  fulfilled.  Protein  is 
the  most  expensive  constituent  of  the  food  ;  pro- 
tein tissues  are  formed  more  slowly  than  fat,  and  if 
subjected  to  excessive  oxidation,  loss  of  body  weight 
results. 


CHAPTER   IV 
QUANTITY  OF  FOOD 

Talking  of  a  man  who  was  grown  very  fat,  so  as 
to  be  incommoded  with  corpulency ;  he  said, 
"  He  eats  too  much.  Sir."  Boswell :  "I  don't 
know,  Sir  ;  you  will  see  one  man  fat  who  eats 
moderately,  and  another  lean  who  eats  a  great 
deal."  Johnson  :  "  Nay,  Sir,  whatever  may  be 
the  quantity  a  man  eats,  it  is  plain  that  if  he 
is  too  fat,  he  has  eaten  more  than  he  should  have 
done.  One  man  may  have  a  digestion  that  con- 
sumes food  better  than  common  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  solidity  is  increased  by  putting  something 
to  it."  Boswell:  "But  may  not  solids  swell 
and  be  distended  ?  "  Johnson  :  "  Yes,  Sir,  they 
may  swell  and  be  distended  ;  but  that  is  not  fat." 

BoswelVs  Life  of  Johnson. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter  that 
the  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  constituents 
of  the  food  have  different  functions.  Neither  can 
be  substituted  for  the  other,  nor  can  they  act  pro- 
perly, independently  of  each  other.  It  may,  there- 
fore, be  laid  down,  as  a  fundamental  principle,  that 
a  certain  amount  of  each  is  necessary  for  bare  sub- 
sistence, and  additional  quantities  are  required  for 
work,  growth  or  production  of  any  kind. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  inquire,  not  only 
what  total  quantity  of  food,  but  also  what  kind  of 
food,   is   suitable   under  various   conditions.     The 


40  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

two  questions  are  really  one,  and  must  be  considered 
together.  In  short,  what  we  have  to  discover  is, 
how  much  protein,  and  how  much  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates are  necessary  and  desirable  in  each  case. 

The  quantitative  methods  by  which  the  require- 
ments of  the  body  are  investigated  fall,  broadly,  into 
two  classes,  viz.  (1)  observations  upon  the  quanti- 
ties of  food  consumed  by  individuals,  and  (2)  obser- 
vations upon  the  products  of  metabolism  given  off 
or  excreted  from  the  body,  under  various  condi- 
tions. It  cannot  be  said  that  either  of  the  two 
methods  is  entirely  satisfactory  ;  and  it  is  only  by 
comparing  the  results  of  numerous  experiments  made 
in  both  ways  that  we  can  hope  to  arrive  at  an  approx- 
imation to  the  truth.  The  evidence  obtained  by 
the  second  method  is,  perhaps,  the  more  reliable 
as  a  primary  indication  ;  but  it  must  be  controlled 
and  confirmed  by  experiments  made  according  to 
the  first  plan. 

The  nitrogenous  compounds — chiefly  urea — re- 
sulting from  the  oxidation  of  protein  in  the  body,  are 
excreted  in  the  urine  ;  the  amount  of  nitrogen  so 
excreted  in  a  given  time  is,  therefore,  a  measure  of 
the  rate  at  which  oxidation  of  the  protein  takes 
place. 

The  estimation  of  urea  is  a  simple  process.  A 
measured  quantity  of  urine  is  introduced  into  a  tube 
or  small  bottle,  and  mixed  with  excess  of  sodium 
hypobromite  ;  the  urea  is  completely  oxidized  by 
this  substance,  and  the  free  nitrogen  gas  liberated 
by  the  reaction,  is  collected  and  measured  ^  in  a 

^  For  detailed  description  of  the  process,  and  also  for 
an  account  of  other  and  more  accurate  methods,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  any  of  the  numerous  works  on  quantitative 
chemical  analysis. 


QUANTITY   OF  FOOD 


41 


graduated  tube.  A  form  of  apparatus  (Dupre's) 
commonly  used  for  this  purpose,  is  shown  in  the 
illustration  ^  (Fig.  3).  Since  protein  contains  16 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  the 
weight  of  this  element 
multiplied  by  VV-  =  6-25 
gives  the  corresponding 
quantity  of  protein. 

The  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  is  exhaled  from  the 
lungs,  can  also  be  collected 
and  measured  by  means 
of  an  apparatus  known 
as  the  respiration  calori- 
meter. This  apparatus 
may  also  be  made  to  serve 
other  purposes  in  connex- 
ion with  experiments  of 
this  kind  ;  but  it  is  much 
too  complicated  to  be 
described  here.  A  general 
view  of  the  respiration 
calorimeter  used  by  At- 
water  is  shown  in  the 
illustration  2  (Fig.  4). 

The  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  exhaled  shows  the 
amount  of  carbon  oxidized. 
This  carbon  is  derived 
mainly  from  the  fat  of  the 
body,  or,  indirectly,  from 
the  fat  and  carbohydrates 
of  the  food.      A  certain    ^^^^  Appabatus  (Dupb^). 


Fig.  3. 


^  Messrs.  Baird  <fe  Tatlock's  catalogue. 

2  Bui.  No.  136.     Exp.  Sta.  U.S.  Dept.  of  Ag. 


42 


ECONOMY   OF  FOOD 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD 


43 


amount  of  it,  however,  is  due  to  the  oxidation  of 
protein  ;  but  when  the  amount  of  the  latter  is 
known,  the  corresponding  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
is  easily  calculated,  and  can  be  deducted  from  the 
total,  in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  discriminate  ; 
the  remainder  may  then  be  expressed  in  terms  of  fat 
or  carbohydrates.  It  is  not  usually  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  make  any  distinction  ;  it  is  more  convenient 
to  express  the  results  in  terms  of  the  total  energy 
liberated  by  the  oxidation,  irrespective  of  the  par- 
ticular compounds  from  which  it  may  have  been 
derived.  By  this  means  ^  then,  we  can  estimate  the 
total  number  of  calories  of  heat  produced  by  oxida- 

^  In  one  series  of  experiments,  the  following  results  were 
obtained  by  Voit  and  Pettenkofer,  in  the  case  of  a  man 
doing  no  external  work.    . 


Nitrogen 

in 
Urine. 

Carbonic 

Acid 
Exhaled. 

Water 

in 
Urine. 

Water       Oxygen 
Evapo-    Absorbed, 
rated. 

(a)  Fasting 

(&)  On  average  diet 

Gms. 
12-5 
17-0 

Gms. 
716 
928 

Gms. 
1,006 
1,218 

Gms. 
821 
931 

Gms. 
762 
832 

Calculating   from   the   results   obtained   in   the   fasting 
experiment  (a)  we  have — 

12-5  X  6-25  =78-12  gms.  of  protein. 
78x0.52=40-56  gms.  of  carbon  =  148-72  gms.  COg. 
(716- 149)  X  0-35  =  198  gms.  of  fat=446  gms.  of  carbo- 
hydrate. 
The   fat  may   also   be   calculated  from  the   amount  of 
oxygen  absorbed  thus — 

78  gms.  of  protein  X  1-48  =  115-4  gms.  of  oxygen. 
(762- 115)  X  0-34  =220  gms.  of  fat. 

The  fuel  values  of  these  quantities  may  be  calculated 
from  Riibner's  factors  thus — 

198  gms.  of  fat  x  9-3         =1841-4  kal. 
78       „        protein  x  4-1  =319-8 


}  = 


2,161  kul. 


44  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

tion  in  the  body,  and  what  proportion  of  it  is  due  to 
the  protein. 

The  results  of  numerous  observations  made  in  this 
way  with  regard  to  the  nitrogenous  matter  may  be 
summarized  as  follows  : — 

1.  When  a  man  is  fasting  absolutely  (receiving 
no  food  of  any  kind)  the  amount  of  nitrogen  ex- 
creted in  the  urine,  corresponds  to  about  80  grams 
of  protein  per  day. 

2.  When  abstaining  only  from  nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents, but  receiving  a  sufficient  amount  of  fat  and 
carbohydrates,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  excreted  in 
the  urine  is  reduced  to  about  a  fourth,  i.e.  it  corre- 
sponds to  only  about  20  grams,  of  protein  per  day. 

3.  When  small  quantities  of  protein  are  consumed 
along  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates, there  is  little  or  no  increase  in  the  amount 
of  nitrogen  excreted. 

4.  When  the  amount  of  protein  consumed  (along 
with  fat  and  carbohydrates)  exceeds  some  30  or  40 
grams  per  day,  a  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  urine  follows  very  rapidly,  and  it  is 
greater  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  protein 
consumed. 

5.  On  an  ordinary  mixed  diet,  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  urine  of  an  average  man  corresponds 
to  from  90  to  110  grams,  of  protein  per  day. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  in  the  absence  of  fat 
and  carbohydrate  foods,  the  nitrogenous  tissues  of 
the  body  suffer  great  loss  by  oxidation.  But  when 
enough  of  these  nutrients  is  consumed,  the  daily 
waste  of  protein  may  be  reduced  to  about  30  grams 
per  day  in  the  case  of  a  man  of  average  size.  Add 
to  this  the  nitrogen  in  the  faeces  (about  2|  grams 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  46 

per  day)  equal  to  about  15  grams  of  protein,  and  we 
get  45  grams  per  day  as  the  minimum  quantity  of 
protein  required  in  the  food  of  an  average  man. 
This  quantity  is  exclusive  of  any  loss  in  the  processes 
of  cooking  and  preparation,  but  includes  the  indigesti- 
ble portion  of  what  is  actually  consumed. 

Examination  of  the  customary  diet  of  all  sorts 
and  conditions  of  men  shows  that  those  who  are  free 
to  choose,  commonly  consume  from  two  to  three 
times  the  amount  of  protein  given  above.  It 
remains  to  be  seen,  however,  whether  they  derive 
any  advantage,  or  the  reverse,  by  so  doing.  We  are 
certainly  not  justified  in  accepting  men's  desires 
as  evidence  of  their  requirements  in  this  respect  ; 
at  the  same  time  they  cannot  be  altogether  ignored. 
The  point  is  a  very  difficult  one  to  decide,  and  the 
opinions  of  authorities  regarding  it  are  divided. 

Chittenden  made  observations,  extending  over  a 
period  of  ^ve  months,  upon  the  diet  of  athletes, 
workmen,  professional  and  business  men,  and  he 
concluded,  not  only  that  50  grams  of  protein,  per 
day,  is  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  but  also 
that  any  considerable  excess  beyond  that  amount 
throws  an  unnecessary  strain  on  the  kidneys,  and 
may  be  positively  injurious.  Physiologists  are  now 
generally  agreed  that  there  is  no  foundation  for  the 
latter  part  of  this  statement ;  and  recent  experi- 
ments on  animals  tend  to  show  that  though  health 
may  be  maintained  for  several  months  on  a  low 
nitrogenous  diet,  yet,  in  the  course  of  years,  unsatis- 
factory results  are  produced. 

Deficiency  of  protein  in  the  diet  means  starvation. 
A  moderate  excess  over  and  above  the  minimum — • 
whatever  that  may  be — is  certainly  harmless,  and 
may  be  beneficial ;   probably  it  is  beneficial.     It  is 


46  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

advisable,  therefore,  to  ensure  sufficiency  by  using  a 
moderate  excess.  This  may  be  put  at  from  90  to 
100  grams,  say  3  to  3 J  oz.  per  day.  The  smaller 
quantity  is  probably  ample  for  men  engaged  in 
sedentary  occupations. 

In  Voit's  experiments,  when  the  man  was  fasting, 
the  carbonic  acid  exhaled,  after  deducting  the 
amount  due  to  oxidation  of  protein,  corresponds  to 
198  grams  of  fat  (or  446  grams  of  carbohydrate)  ; 
the  oxygen  absorbed,  minus  that  required  for  the 
protein,  is  sufficient  to  oxidize  220  grams  of  fat. 
When  the  man  was  on  average  diet,  the  carbonic  acid 
corresponded  to  250  grams  of  fat,  and  the  oxygen 
to  about  230  grams. 

The  discrepancy  between  the  results  calculated 
from  the  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  respectively,  in 
each  of  these  two  cases,  is  indicative  of  some 
experimental  error  ;  but  in  view  of  the  difficulties 
connected  with  experiments  of  this  kind  absolute 
accuracy  is  scarcely  to  be  expected. 

The  results,  however,  serve  to  show  approxi- 
mately the  amount  of  loss  per  day  (24  hours)  under 
the  conditions  of  the  experiments  ;  and  they  afford, 
therefore,  some  indication  of  the  quantities  of  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients  required  to  repair  the  waste 
of  tissue.  Similar  results  have  been  obtained  in 
other  experiments  ;  and  they  are  confirmed  by 
observations  upon  the  quantities  commonly  con- 
sumed by  men  under  like  conditions.  The  general 
conclusion  arrived  at  is  that,  for  a  man  of  average 
size,  the  daily  food  should  have  a  total  fuel  value  of 
about  2,500  kal.  or  3,000  kal.  For  those  engaged  in 
sedentary  occupations,  the  minimum  is  estimated  at 
2,400  kal.  per  day  ;  for  sick  persons  confined  to  bed, 
a  smaller  quantity  suffices. 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  47 

If  we  take  2,800  kal.^  as  the  average,  and  deduct 
350  kal.  due  to  oxidation  of  protein,  the  remainder 
corresponds  to  about  260  grams  of  fat,  or  590  grams 
of  carbohydrate.  Theoretically,  i.e.  so  far  as  the 
production  of  heat  is  concerned,  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence in  which  of  these  two  forms  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous matter  is  supplied.  Practically,  however,  there 
are  other  points  to  be  considered.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  stomach  would  probably  revolt  against  so  large 
a  quantity  of  fat ;  on  the  other,  a  certain  amount 
of  fat  is  necessary,  or  at  least  desirable,  for  lubrica- 
tion and  other  purposes.  The  quantity  commonly 
used  varies  from  about  50  to  100  grams  per  day  ; 
and  it  may  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  any  inter- 
mediate quantity,  say  about  85  grams  or  3  oz. 
would  be  suitable.  The  remainder  of  the  fuel  value 
must,  of  course,  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  carbo- 
hydrates of  which,  in  the  case  supposed,  405  grams, 
say  14 J  oz.,  would  be  required. 

Thus  we  arrive  finally  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
diet  should  contain  the  following  quantities  of  the 
several  food  constituents  : — 

Standabd  Diet  for  Simple  Maintenance. 
3  oz.  (85  grains)  protein,  giving        350  kal. 

3    „    (     „     „     )  fat,  „  790     „ 

14J  „    (405     „     )  carbohydrates     „         1,660     „ 


Total  fuel  value      .  .  .     2,800     „ 

The    quantities   prescribed    above   are   not    the 

^  This  amount  includes  the  indigestible  portion.  In 
Voit's  experiment,  the  calculated  quantities  of  fat  corre- 
spond to  2,459  kal.  and  2,645  kal.  respectively,  exclusive  of 
indigestible  matter  ;  that  is  in  the  case  of  a  man  on  average 
diet  but  doing  no  external  work.  In  the  fasting  condition, 
vitality  is  lower  and  less  is  oxidized. 


48  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

absolute  minimum  required  for  bare  subsistence, 
but  may  be  regarded  as  constituting  a  standard  for 
simple  maintenance,  i.e.  for  a  man  of  average  size, 
living  in  a  temperate  climate,  engaged  in  a  sedentary 
occupation,  and  taking  but  little  exercise.  Tliis 
standard  is  not,  therefore,  applicable  to  all  con- 
ditions alike,  but  must  be  modified  according  to 
circumstances.  Chief  among  these  are  :  the  size 
of  the  individual,  climate  and  exposure,  work, 
growth,  increase  or  reduction  of  weight,  and  in  the 
case  of  women,  condition  as  regards  pregnancy  and 
lactation. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that,  under 
similar  conditions,  small  individuals  require  less 
food  than  those  of  larger  size.  Children  and  women, 
for  instance,  generally  consume  less  food  than  full 
grown  men. 

The  normal  weight  of  a  man  of  average  size  is 
about  11  stones,  say  150  lb.  The  quantities  given 
in  the  standard  diet  are,  therefore,  equal  to  0*02  oz. 
of  protein  and  18*7  kal.  fuel  value,  per  lb.  weight. 
Assuming  that  the  quantity  of  food  required  is  pro- 
portional to  the  weight  of  the  individual,  these 
factors  may  be  used  to  determine  the  dietary  re- 
quirements of  any  individual  whose  weight  is  known. 
Thus,  for  a  person  of  100  lb.  weight,  the  quantities 
would  be  : — 

0-02  X  100=2  oz.  of  protein, 
and  18-7    x  100  =  1,870  kal.  fuel  value. 

For  a  person  of  200  lb.  (about  14  stone)  weight : — 

0-02  X  200  =4  oz.  of  protein, 
and  18-7    x  200  =  3,740  kal.  fuel  value. 

But,  it  may  be  asked,  is  the  assumption  correct  ? 
So  far  as  the  protein  is  concerned,  it  is  probably 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  49 

sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  purposes,  pro- 
vided the  weight  of  the  person  is  strictly  normal. 
The  normal  weight  of  a  man  of  average  size  (5  ft. 
8  in.),  it  has  been  said,  is  about  150  lb.  ;  but  it  may 
be  10  or  15  lb.  more  or  less.  In  abnormal  cases  the 
weight  of  a  man  of  average  height  may  run  up  to 
200  lb.,  or  it  may  faU  as  low  as  100  lb.  ;  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  in  the  former  case  the  man  requires 
twice  as  much  food  as  in  the  latter ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  allowance  of  protein  should  be  very  nearly 
the  same  in  each.  In  calculating  with  this  factor, 
therefore,  it  is  the  normal  rather  than  the  actual 
weight  of  the  individual  that  should  be  considered. 

As  regards  the  fuel  value,  so  far  as  it  depends 
upon  the  fat  and  carbohydrates,  the  assumption  is 
not  correct.  Small  individuals  expose  a  relatively 
large  body  surface,  and  so  lose  more  heat  by  radia- 
tion.^ The  food  of  small  individuals  should,  there- 
fore, have  a  higher  fuel  value,  i.e.  it  should  contain 
a  larger  quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 

A  dog  weighing  6  lb.  was  found  to  radiate  nearly 
twice  as  much  heat  as  one  weighing  40  lb.  At  the 
same  rate,^  we  should,  add  to,  or  subtract  from,  the 

^  Of  the  total  energy  converted  from  the  potential  to 

the  kinetic  form  by  oxidation  in  the  body,  a  considerable 

part  may  be  used  to  perform  work ;    in  any  case,  a  part 

is  rendered  latent  in  the  water  vapour  given  off  from  the 

lungs  and  skin  ;   and  a  smaller  proportion  is  used  to  warm 

the  ingesta  and  inhaled  air  ;    the  remainder  is  lost  by 

radiation  from  the  surface  of  the  body.     As  stated  in  the 

text,  the  amount  of  heat  lost  by  radiation  varies  according 

to  the  extent  of  surface  exposed  ;    but  in  average  cases, 

it  is  estimated  that,  when  no  external  work  is  done,  from 

60  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  accounted  for  in  this  way. 

2  2800x6      ,_  150x6       ^.,  .       420       „  „ 

-^^  =  420;    150— ^^=127.5  5^27:^  =  3.3. 

If  a  larger  or  smaller  fuel  value  than  2,800  kal.be  adopted 


50 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


amount  previously  given  (18*7  X  w),  3-3  kal.  for 
each  lb.  below  or  above  the  average  weight  of  150 
lb.     This  is  embodied  in  the  following  formula  : — 

2^=[(18.7  X  w)-  3-3  (w-  150)] 

where  F  is  the  total  fuel  value  required,  and  w  the 
normal  ^  weight  of  the  individual. 

The  equivalent  of  F  in  fat  and  carbohydrates  is 
easily  found  by  Riibner's  factors. 

AvEBAGE  Weight  op  Individuals. 


Men. 

Women. 

Children. 

Height. 

Weight. 

Height. 

Weight. 

Age. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

ft.  in. 

St.   lb. 

ft.  in. 

St.    lb. 

Years. 

St.    lb. 

St.    lb. 

5     2 

9     0 

4  10 

7     0 

5 

3     8 

2  12 

6     3 

9     7 

4  11 

7     4 

6 

3  12 

3     1 

5     4 

9  13 

5     0 

7     7 

7 

4     1 

3     6 

6     5 

10     2 

5     1 

7  12 

8 

4     4 

3  10 

5     6 

10     6 

5     2 

8     2 

9 

4     9 

4     1 

6     7 

10     8 

6     3 

8     9 

10 

4  13 

4     6 

5     8 

11     1 

5     4 

9     2 

11 

5     3 

4  13 

6     9 

11     8 

5     6 

9     9 

12 

5     9 

5     8 

6  10 

12     1 

5     6 

9  13 

13 

6     0 

6     5 

5  11 

12     6 

5     7 

10     8 

14 

6     8 

7     0 

6     0 

12  10 

5     8 

11     4 

15 

7     5 

7     8 

as  the  standard,  the  factors  18* 7  and  3*3  must  be  altered 
to  correspond. 

^  If  an  individual  put  on  much  flesh,  his  weight  will  be 
increased  much  more  largely  than  his  radiating  surface, 
and  vice  versa  ;  hence,  in  this  case  also,  it  is  the  normal 
rather  than  the  actual  weight  that  should  be  used.  The 
ixonnal  weights  are  given  in  the  table. 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  51 


Intants. 

At  birth 

about 

8  1b. 

At    3  months 

»         >» 

13    „ 

At    6       „ 

>» 

16    „ 

At     9       „ 

>» 

19    „ 

At  12       „ 

»> 

22   „ 

The  examples  given  in  the  footnote  ^  show  how  the 
formula  may  be  used  to  calculate  the  diet  correspond- 
ing to  the  standard  for  individuals  of  various  sizes. 

In  cold  climates,  cold  weather,  or  as  a  result  of 
exposure,  the  body  loses  more  heat  by  radiation,  and 
more  fuel  is  required  to  maintain  it.  Men  who 
spend  much  time  in  the  open  air,  e.g.  farmers, 
soldiers,  fishermen,  require  more  food  than  engineers, 
factory  hands,  tailors  and  others  whose  work  may 
be  equally  hard  but  is  done  in  dry  warm  rooms. 
Builders  and  workmen  eat  more  when  engaged  on 
sea  walls,  high  towers,  or  other  exposed  positions. 
Driving  in  motor  cars  and  open  carriages  increases 
the  appetite  for  the  same  reason,  viz.  because  it 
promotes  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  Clothes  help 
to  maintain  the  warmth  of  the  body  by  diminishing 
radiation,  but  if  the  clothing  be  insufficient  the 
body  will  demand  more  food.     In  very  warm  cli- 

^  (a)  For  a  man  5  ft.  10  in.  in  height,  normal  weight 
12  stones. 

12x14  =  168  lb. 

Protein  :  0-02  x  168  =3-36  oz. 

Fuel  value  :  [(18-7  x  168)-  3-3  (168-  150)]  - 

3,141-6- 59-4  =  3,082-2  kal. 

(b)  For  a  woman  5  ft.  2  in.  in  height,  normal  weight 
8  stone  2  lb. 

8  St.  2  1b.  X  14  =  114  lb. 

Protein:  0-02  x  114=2-28  oz. 

Fuel  value  :     [(18-7  x  114)- 3-3  (114  -  150)]  = 

2,131-8  + 118-8  =2,250  kal. 


52  ECOlSrOMY  OF  FOOD 

mates  or  under  any  conditions  that  tend  to  diminish 
radiation,  less  food  is  necessary. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  what  additions  should  be 
made  to  the  food  under  these  various  circumstances. 
The  quantity  is  generally  determined  by  the  appe- 
tite, and  it  apparently  makes  little  difference 
whether  the  heat  be  derived  from  protein,  fat  or 
carbohydrates,  or  from  a  mixture  of  the  three. 
Protein  is  the  most  expensive,  and  for  other  reasons 
it  is  probably  undesirable  to  increase  the  quantity 
of  this  constituent  beyond  a  certain  amount — say 
5  or  6  oz.  per  day  at  the  outside.  Carbohydrates 
are  the  cheapest  source  of  heat,  but  are  compara- 
tively bulky,  and  having  regard  to  the  amount  pre- 
scribed in  the  standard  diet,  it  is  not  generally 
desirable  to  make  very  large  additions.  Under 
conditions  of  extreme  cold  or  exposure,  such  as 
those  which  obtain  in  the  Arctic  regions,  the  addi- 
tional food  generally  consists  largely  of  fat.  There 
are  also,  no  doubt,  other  reasons  for  this. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  regarding 
the  additions  that  should  be  made  to  the  diet  of  a 
man  when  doing  work.  In  this  connexion,  the 
term  work  includes  all  forms  of  exercise  and  mus- 
cular effort,  whatever  their  object  may  be. 

Formerly,  it  was  held  by  Liebig  and  others  that 
bodily  work  is  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  the 
muscular  tissues,  i.e.  of  the  protein.  This  opinion 
was,  apparently,  founded  on  the  fact  that  the  work 
is  accomplished  by  contraction  and  relaxation  of 
the  muscles  ;  but  it  does  not  foUow  that  the  energy 
which  causes  them  to  contract  is  derived  from  oxi- 
dation of  their  substance.  The  work  of  an  engine 
is  done  by  the  forward  and  backward  thrust  of  the 
piston  ;    but  the  energy  which  produces  the  move- 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  53 

ment  is  derived  from  the  combustion  of  fuel,  not  of 
the  iron  of  which  the  piston  is  composed. 

At  any  rate,  Liebig's  view  is  no  longer  tenable. 
When  a  man  does  bodily  work,  very  little,  if  any, 
more  protein  is  oxidized  than  when  he  is  at  rest, 
and  the  whole  amount  is  not,  as  a  rule,  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  energy  expended.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  much  larger  amount  of  oxygen  is  absorbed, 
and  a  larger  amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  respired. 

The  natural  conclusion,  therefore,  is  that  the 
energy  for  the  performance  of  bodily  work  is  de- 
rived mainly,  if  not  entirely,  from  the  oxidation  of 
non-nitrogenous  matter,  and  that  the  quantities  of 
fat  and  carbohydrates  in  the  diet  should  be  increased 
when  the  man  does  work.  It  has  also  been  argued, 
from  these  premises,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  in- 
crease the  allowance  of  protein.  Experience  shows, 
however,  that  men  doing  hard  work  exhibit  a  strong 
desire  for  more  nitrogenous  diet,  and  that  such  diet 
appears  to  markedly  increase  the  capacity  for  work  ^ 
both  of  men  and  beasts.  It  was  forbidden  by  the 
Law  to  "  muzzle  the  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  com.'' 
Almost  every  recognized  authority  considers  that 
the  quantity  of  protein — ^as  well  as  that  of  the  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients — ^should  be  increased  when 
the    man    does    work.     The    additional    quantities 

^  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  this  ;  but  in  the  absence 
of  more  reliable  information,  it  may  be  attributed  to  the 
stimulating  effects  of  the  dissociation  products  into  which 
the  protein  is  rapidly  resolved.  Similar  effects  have  been 
observed  to  result  from  the  direct  ingestion  of  such  com- 
pounds in  the  form  of  meat  extracts.  As  stimulants,  the 
latter  have  been  found  to  be  much  superior  to  alcohol ; 
they  have  been  largely  used  for  soldiers  on  the  march, 
and  are  said  to  greatly  increase  the  men's  power  of  endur- 
ance. 


64  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

recommended  vary  from  about  25  to  35  per  cent, 
of  the  quantity  for  simple  maintenance  of  the  in- 
dividual in  question,  i.e.  about  1  oz.  for  an  average 
man. 

It  is  also  generally  agreed  that  the  additional 
quantity  of  non-nitrogenous  matter  should  be  pro- 
portional to  the  work  done  ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  exactly  what  the  amount  should  be  in 
any  given  case.  A  simple  calculation  ^  shows  that 
326-4  kal.  of  energy  is  required  to  perform  1,000,000 
foot  pounds  of  work,  which  is  reckoned  a  fair  day's 
work  for  a  man.  But  when  bodily  work  is  done,  a 
considerable  amount  of  energy  is  also  expended  in 
other  ways — chiefly  in  evaporation  of  water — ^and 
this,  also,  must  be  allowed  for  in  the  diet. 

In  one  experiment,  a  man  on  average  diet  exhaled 
281  grams  more  carbonic  acid,  and  evaporated  769 
grams  more  water,  when  at  work  than  when  at  rest. 
The  carbonic  acid  is  equivalent  to  98  grams  of  fat, 
i.e.  to  915  kal.  The  water  evaporated  accounts 
for  462  kal.  Add  to  this  326  kal.  for  work  done, 
making  a  total  of  788  kal.,  and  there  remains  127 
kal.  still  unaccounted  ^  for. 

Further  consideration  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that,  from  800  to  1,000  kal.  of  energy  must  be  ex- 
pended in  order  to  perform  1,000,000  foot  pounds 
of  work,  and  the  additions  should  be  sufficient  to 


^  772  ft.  lb.  of  work  is  the  mechanical  equivalent  of 
the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  lb.  of  water 
1°  F.,  i.e.  to  raise  the  temperature  of  453*59  grams  f  °  C, 
=  0-252  kal.     Therefore,  0-252  x  1,000,000  =  326-4  kal. 

772 

^  In  this  experiment,  the  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed 
did  not  correspond  with  that  of  the  CO2  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  latter  is  too  high. 


QUANTITY   OF  FOOD 


65 


produce   this   amount.     The   standard   diet   for   a 
working  man  should,  therefore,  be  as  follows  : — 


Standard  Diet  for  Work. 


Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

For  simple  maintenance 
Additional  for  work      .... 

7 

1 

kal. 
2,800 
800 

Total  diet  for  work     .      .      . 

4 

3,600 

Many  other  experiments  might  be  mentioned 
and  criticized,  but  it  will  be  sufficient  to  quote  the 
conclusions  arrived  at  by  several  authorities. 


^  Standards  for  Daily  Diet  of  Labouring  Men. 


Nutrients  in  Food. 

Fuel 

Authority. 

Value. 

Protein 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

kal. 

Playfair  (England)    .      . 

4-16 

1-76 

18-72 

3,140 

Atwater  (U.S.A.)       .      . 

4-48 

27-5-3 

19-36 

3,500 

Moleschott  (Italy)     .      . 

4-64 

1-44 

19-36 

3,160 

Wolff(  Germany).      .      . 

4-48 

1-28 

19-04 

3,030 

Voit  (Germany) — 

For  moderate  work 

4-16 

1-92 

17-60 

3,055 

„   hard  work  . 

5-12 

3-52 

15-84 

3,370 

Mean 

4-51 

2-32 

18-32 

3,209 

1   Year  Book,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Ag.  1894. 


66  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  most  cases  the  amount  of 
protein  is  higher  and  the  fuel  value  lower  than  that 
given  above.  The  average  of  all  is  probably  not  far 
from  the  truth  ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  only  a  standard,  suitable  for  an  average  man, 
subject  to  modification  in  particular  cases. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that  some 
individuals  consume  much  larger  quantities  of  food 
than  others.  No  doubt  some  men  eat  too  much, 
and  others  too  little  ;  but  recorded  observations 
show  that,  under  exactly  similar  conditions  as 
regards  size,  work,  etc.,  the  quantities  of  food 
consumed  by  apparently  normal  individuals  vary 
considerably  ;  and  it  must  be  assumed  that  the 
quantities  correspond  approximately  with  the  re- 
quirements, because  the  weights  of  the  persons 
remain  practically  constant.  Also,  under  like  con- 
ditions, some  men  grow  fat  and  others  thin  on 
quantities  of  food  that  are  found  to  be  just  sufficient 
to  maintain  average  individuals  without  gain  or 
loss  of  weight. 

The  question  of  the  difference  between  individuals 
is  a  very  difficult  one  and  involved  in  obscurity  ; 
but  the  more  important  facts  are  clear  and  simple. 

If  a  man  consume  one  pound  of  food,  his  weight 
will  be  increased,  for  the  time  being,  by  that  amount. 
Very  soon  the  water  will  be  eliminated,  and,  to- 
gether with  a  trifling  quantity  of  salts  and  other 
substances,  wiU  be  discharged  in  the  urine.  Of  the 
solids  a  portion  is  indigestible,  and  will  in  time  be 
dejected  as  faeces.  The  remainder  undergoes  oxi- 
dation, more  or  less  rapidly,  and  the  products  are 
given  off  as  gases.  If  more  food  be  consumed  than 
is  oxidized  in  the  same  time,  the  excess  remains  and 
adds  to  the  body  weight,  and  vice  versa.     In  short, 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  57 

the  weight  of  the  body  can  remain  constant  only 
when  the  total  outgoings  are  exactly  balanced  by 
what  is  taken  in. 

In  normal  cases,  water  passes  through  the  body 
so  quickly  that  it  scarcely  affects  the  weight,  and 
may,  therefore,  be  ignored.  There  may  be  some 
difference  in  individuals  as  regards  the  power  of 
absorption,  but  it  is  generally  considered  that  such 
differences  are  not  very  great — certainly  not  enough 
to  account  for  the  observed  differences  in  the  quan- 
tities of  food  consumed.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
these  differences  must  be  referred  to  the  rate  at 
which  oxidation  takes  place. 

Oxidation  is  effected  by  the  action  of  the  lungs, 
which  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  bellows  blowing 
a  fire.  The  larger  the  bellows  and  the  more  rapidly 
it  is  worked,  the  greater  will  be  the  quantity  of  air 
driven  into  the  fire,  and  the  more  rapidly  will  the 
fire  bum.  So  it  is  with  the  lungs.  Some  men  have 
larger  lungs,  and  some  use  them  more  efficiently 
than  others.  In  some  cases,  too,  the  action  may 
be  more  or  less  rapid  than  in  others.  Physiologists 
may,  perhaps,  trace  this  to  the  action  of  the  heart, 
and  ultimately  to  the  nervous  system,  by  which  the 
whole  of  the  functions  of  the  organism  are  con- 
trolled. However  this  may  be,  it  is  obvious  that  in 
aU  these  cases  the  amount  of  oxidation  taking  place 
in  a  given  time  will  be  affected  ;  and  that  the  quan- 
tity of  food  required  by  the  individual  will  vary 
accordingly. 

Whatever  the  rate  of  oxidation  in  any  given  in- 
dividual, he  will  require  more  food  when  he  does 
work  than  when  he  is  at  rest ;  he  wiU  require  more 
food  when  subject  to  exposure,  and  so  on. 

Large  individuals  require  more  than  small  ones 


68  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

because,  as  a  rule,  they  have  correspondingly  larger 
lungs.  Such,  however,  is  not  always  the  case,  and 
sometimes  small  men  consume  more  food  than 
those  of  larger  size. 

If  a  person  desire  to  increase  his  weight,  either 
the  rate  of  oxidation  must  be  reduced,  or  the  quan- 
tity of  food  consumed  daily  must  be  increased. 
The  former  is  not,  as  a  rule,  either  practicable  or 
desirable.  Any  addition  to  the  food  may  be  useless 
unless  it  be  of  the  right  kind. 

When  a  man,  in  a  normal  state  of  health,  gains 
weight,  the  increase  is  made  up  of  about  70  parts  of 
fat,  20  parts  of  water,  and  10  parts  of  protein,  per 
cent.  An  increase  of  24  lb,  in  a  year  is  at  the  rate 
of  2  lb.  per  month,  or,  say  1  oz.  per  day.  To  pro- 
duce this  increase,  therefore,  the  person  must  absorb 
about  0'08  oz.  of  protein  and  0*7  oz.  of  fat  or  its 
equivalent  in  carbohydrates — say  6*5  kal. — in  addi- 
tion to  what  is  required  for  his  maintenance  and 
work.  In  other  words,  the  additional  food  should 
contain  about  9  parts  of  fat  to  1  of  protein.  To 
produce  a  larger  or  more  rapid  increase  of  weight, 
larger  quantities  must  be  allowed. 

In  the  case  of  a  person  whose  weight  is  much 
below  the  normal,  such  as  a  convalescent,  or  one 
who  is  much  "  run  down,"  the  proportion  of  protein 
in  the  additional  food  should  be  larger  ;  in  extreme 
cases,  it  may  be  as  high  as  one  of  protein  to  one  of 
fat. 

In  order  to  reduce  weight,  either  the  rate  of  oxi- 
dation must  be  increased,  or  the  quantity  of  food 
must  be  reduced.  Increased  oxidation  results  from 
increased  work  or  exercise,  and  by  aU  conditions 
which  promote  radiation,  e.g.  light  clothing,  cool 
rooms,  cold  bathing,  etc. 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  59 

In  the  case  of  an  individual  whose  weight  is  above 
the  normal,  the  loss  of  weight  consists  mainly  of  fat. 
Thus  it  is  estimated  that  in  the  case  of  a  reduction 
of  20  lb.  weight,  about  14  lb.  would  be  fat,  1*6  lb. 
protein,  and  the  remainder  water.  Such  a  reduction 
might,  therefore,  be  expected  to  result  in  greatly- 
increased  activity  as  the  person  would  have  so  much 
less  mass  to  move.  In  the  case  of  athletes,  the 
slight  reduction  of  the  muscular  tissues  would  pro- 
bably be  more  than  compensated  by  the  increased 
contractile  power  due  to  the  training. 

When  weight  is  reduced  much  below  the  normal, 
a  more  considerable  loss  of  protein  is  involved,  and 
loss  of  power  results. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  if  it  be  necessary 
or  desirable  to  restrict  the  allowance  of  food  in 
order  to  effect  a  reduction  of  weight,  it  is  chiefly 
the  proportion  of  fat  and  carbohydrates  that  should 
be  diminished.  In  general,  the  best  and  quickest 
results  will  be  obtained  by  combining  both  methods, 
i.e.  by  increasing  the  rate  of  oxidation  and  at  the 
same  time  restricting  the  quantity  of  food. 

The  question  of  obesity  di£Pers  in  some  respects 
from  that  of  an  ordinary  gain  or  loss  of  weight.  It 
is  further  considered  in  a  later  chapter. 

In  pregnancy,  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  foetus  is 
not  uniform  throughout  the  period,  but  for  simplicity 
it  may  be  assumed  to  be  so.  A  full  grown,  well- 
nourished  infant  weighs  at  birth  from  7  to  9  lb. 
The  process  of  maturation  occupies  approximately 
nine  months  ;  let  it  be  9  lb.  in  nine  months,  or, 
roughly,  1  lb.  per  month,  i.e.  about  half  an  ounce 
per  day.  Of  this  quantity,  at  least  60  per  cent,  is 
water,  and  the  remainder  is  made  up  mainly  of 
protein  and  fat  in  about  equal  proportions.     We 


60  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

may  take  it  therefore  that  about  0*1  oz.  of  each  of 
these  constituents  ^  is  required  for  the  growth  of 
the  foetus,  and  the  ordinary  diet  of  the  mother  must 
be  increased  accordingly. 

During  the  period  of  lactation,  a  healthy  mother 
yields  from  20  to  40  oz.  of  milk  ^  per  day  ;  the  quan- 
tity gradually  increases  with  the  requirements  of 
the  child,  from  the  first  to  about  the  ninth  month. 
From  the  second  to  the  sixth  month  the  average 
jdeld  is  about  30  oz.  per  day.  The  milk  contains 
about  2"  3  per  cent,  of  protein,  3*8  per  cent,  of  fat, 
6*2  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  87  per  cent,  of  water. 
These  quantities  are,  therefore,  equivalent  to  0*7 
oz.  of  protein  and  600  kal.  per  day,  and  the  diet  for 
maintenance  of  a  nursing  mother  must  be  increased 
by  these  amounts.  Corresponding  to  the  amount 
of  milk  produced,  the  additional  quantities  of  food 
may  be  rather  smaller  at  first,  but  should  be  gradu- 
ally increased,  and,  after  the  sixth  month,  should 
be  greater  than  those  calculated  above. 

To  calculate  appropriate  diets  for  a  woman  under 
these  conditions,  we  may  take  the  normal  weight 
of  the  mother  as  130  lb.,  i.e.  the  average  weight  of 
a  woman  5  ft.  4  in.  in  height.  The  maintenance 
diet,  calculated  according  to  the  formula  (p.  50) 
is  as  follows  : — 

Protein  :  0-02  x  130  =  2.6  oz. 

Fuel    value:    (18-7  x  130)- S-B  (130- 150)  =2,431 +  66  = 

2,497  kal. 
O-l  oz.  fat  X  28  X  9-3  =  26  kal. 

1  According  to  medical  authorities  the  deposition  of 
material  in  the  fcetus  takes  place  at  the  rate  of  about  3 
grams  of  protein  and  3^  grams  of  fat  per  day  during  the 
last  three  months  of  pregnancy  (O'loz.  =  2*8  grama). 

-  Pfeifer. 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD 


61 


Diet  for  Pregnancy. 

Diet  for  Tiactation. 

Protein. 

Fuel 
Value. 

Protein. 

Fuel 
Value. 

For  maintenance     . 
Additional    . 

oz, 
2-6 
0-1 

kal. 
2,497 
26 

oz. 
2-6 
0-7 

kal. 
2,497 
600 

Total 

27 

2,523 

33 

3,097 

It  will  be  seen  that  lactation  constitutes  a  much 
heavier  drain  upon  the  physiological  resources  of 
a  woman  than  pregnancy.  In  fact,  the  fuel  value 
of  the  food  required  is  not  much  less  than  some  of 
the  estimates  for  the  diet  of  working  men.  Of 
course,  if  the  woman  be  called  upon  to  do  bodily 
work  during  the  periods  of  pregnancy  or  lactation 
— ^as  she  generally  is — still  further  additions  must 
be  made  to  the  diet  on  that  account,  as  previously 
shown. 

The  dietetic  requirements  of  children  are  not 
the  same  as  those  of  adults  ;  they  are  governed  by 
the  same  general  principles,  but  allowance  must 
be  made  for  growth  and  greater  activity,  as  well  as 
for  difference  in  stature  and  power  of  digestion. 
Not  only  do  individuals  differ  considerably  in  all 
these  respects,  but  also,  any  given  child  varies 
from  year  to  year.  The  formula  previously  given 
for  adults  is  not,  therefore,  applicable  to  children. 

For  young  children,  an  indication  of  their  require- 
ments is  afforded  by  the  compositionl^of  mother's 
milk.     This,  it  has  been  shown,  yields  about  0*7 


62  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

oz.  of  protein  and  600  kal.  fuel  value  per  day. 
Assuming  that  this  is  adequate  nourishment  for 
a  child  of  six  months,  weighing,  say  16  lb.,  the 
requirements  of  children  may  be  estimated  at  about 
0'044  oz.  of  protein  and  37-5  kal.  per  lb.  weight 
per  day.  These  quantities,  it  will  be  seen,  are 
almost  exactly  twice  as  much  as  are  required  for 
simple  maintenance  of  adults  (p.  48). 

During  the  first  five  years,  the  diet  of  children 
should  consist  very  largely  of  milk,  and  whatever 
is  given  along  with  it,  the  whole  should  furnish 
the  quantities  of  nutrients  indicated  above  according 
to  the  size  (weight)  of  the  child. 

From  the  age  of  ten  to  fifteen  years,  the  diet 
of  children  should  gradually  approach  that  of  adults 
in  composition  ;  but  having  regard  to  the  restless 
active  character  of  children  of  that  age,  it  is  the 
diet  for  work,  rather  than  that  for  simple  mainten- 
ance, that  it  should  be  brought  to  resemble. 

The  diet  of  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
ten  years  should  be  of  intermediate  character. 
In  other  words,  from  the  age  of  five  years  upwards, 
the  proportion  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  may 
be  gradually  increased  ;  but  of  course,  the  total 
quantity  of  protein  must  be  augmented  in  proportion 
to  the  growth  of  the  child. 

The  following  are  the  averages  of  some  of  the 
numerous  diets  which  have  been  prescribed  for 
healthy  children  by  various  authorities. 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD 


63 


Nutrients  in  the  Food. 

Fuel 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Value. 

Age  1-  2  years 
,,    2-  6       „ 
„    6-15       „ 

oz. 
0-96 
1-92 
3-20 

oz. 
1-28 
1-44 
1-60 

oz. 

2-72 

7-04 

14-08 

kal. 
765 
1,420 
2,040 

No  doubt  the  diet  of  children  is  often  deficient 
in  protein  ;  but  the  proportions  of  that  constituent 
in  the  diets  given  in  the  table  seem  unnecessarily- 
large.  In  the  three  cases  quoted,  it  is  respectively 
at  the  rate  of  1*25,  1'35  and  1»57  oz.  of  protein  to 
each  1,000  kal.  fuel  value,  whereas  in  mother's 
milk,  the  proportion  is  only  M5  oz.  of  protein  to 
the  1,000  kal.  The  quantities  of  both  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  must  be  increased 
according  to  the  growth  of  the  child,  but  the  pro- 
portion of  protein  to  non-nitrogenous  matter  need 
not  be  increased  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  may  be  slightly 
diminished. 

Taking  the  weight  of  a  boy  of  fifteen  years  of  age 
as  100  lb.,  and  calculating  from  the  diet  for  work 
for  adults,  we  get,  after  adding  an  allowance  for 
growth,  2-7  oz.  of  protein  and  2,636  kal.  fuel  value 
as  the  appropriate  diet.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  is 
practically  at  the  rate  of  1  oz.  of  protein  to  1,000 
kal.,  which  is  probably  sufficient. 


SECTION   II.     FOOD 

CHAPTER   V 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  GENERAL 
PROPERTIES  OF  FOODS 

Next  to  the  market  places  that  I  spake  of 
stonde  meatte  markettes,  whether  be  brought  not 
only  all  sortes  of  herbes,  and  the  fruit  of  trees  with 
breade,  but  also  fishe,  and  all  manner  of  iiii 
footed  beastes,  and  wilde  foule  that  be  mans 
meate. 

More's  Utopia. 

Man  is,  in  practice,  omnivorous,  using  both  animal 
and  vegetable  products  as  food. 

The  former  includes  all  kinds  of  butcher's  meat, 
poultry,  game,  fish,  the  so-called  shell  fish,  eggs, 
dairy  produce,  cured,  canned  and  preserved  goods 
such  as  bacon,  lard,  sausages,  etc. 

To  the  latter  belong  fresh,  dried  and  preserved 
fruits  and  vegetables,  legumes,  cereals  and  farin- 
aceous products,  certain  vegetable  oils,  sugar, 
molasses,  jam,  etc. 

The  common  beverages,  tea,  cocoa,  ale,  wine,  and 
also  spices  and  condiments,  are  nearly  all  of  vege- 
table origin.  These  products,  however,  are  not 
generally  valued  for  the  nourishment  they  contain 
— ^the  proportion  is  usually  very  small — ^and  it  is 


GENERAL  PROPERTIES   OF  FOODS     65 

only  by  an  extension  of  the  term  that  they  can  be 
regarded  as  foods. 

The  character  of  a  food  depends  upon  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  nutrients — ^protein,  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates— ^it  contains,  and  upon  the  actual  and 
relative  proportions  in  which  they  are  present. 

The  fat  and  carbohydrates,  since  they  perform 
similar  functions  in  the  animal  economy,  may  be 
grouped  together.  The  nutritive  values  of  these 
constituents,  however,  are  not  the  same ;  they 
stand  in  the  relation  of  9*3  to  4*1  or  2*  27  to  1.  In 
order  to  express  the  ratio  of  nitrogenous  to 
non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in  a  food,  the  fat  and 
carbohydrates  must,  therefore,  be  reduced  to  the 
same  denomination.  By  a  generally  accepted 
convention,  this  is  accomplished  by  multiplying 
the  percentage  of  fat  by  2*27 ;  the  percentage 
of  carbohydrates  is  then  added  and  the  sum  is 
divided  by  the  percentage  of  protein. 

This  ratio  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the 
food.i 

In  the  natural  state,  the  foods  always  contain, 
in  addition  to  the  nutrients,  a  certain  amount  of 
water,  some  proportion  of  mineral  salts,  and  also 
other  compounds,  which,  either  on  account  of 
their  chemical  nature  or  indigestible  character, 
have  no  nutritive  value. 

When  the  non-nutritive  parts  are  unedible,  e.g. 
feathers,    bone,    cartilage,    skin,    entrails,    potato 

^  Example,  to  find  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  sample  of 
milk  which  contains  3-5  per  cent,  protein,  3-6  per  cent, 
fat,  and  4-88  per  cent,  sugar — 

(3-6  X  2'27)  +  4-88_  1305_3-73 
3-5  3-5  1 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  I — 3-73. 


66  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

peelings,  stones  of  fruit,  husk  of  grain,  etc.,  they 
are  wholly  or  partially  removed  in  preparing  the 
food  for  the  market  and  for  the  table,  and  finally 
set  aside  as  refuse.  The  amount  of  such  refuse 
must  be  taken  into  account  in  comparing  the  prices 
and  composition  of  different  foods. 

The  indigestible  fibre  of  cereals  and  many  other 
vegetable  products  is  not  unedible,  and  cannot  be 
entirely  separated  from  the  nutrient  constituents  ; 
it  cannot  therefore  be  regarded  as  refuse,  though 
it  is  practically  of  that  nature. 

By  removing  the  non-nutritive  parts,  the  food  is 
rendered  more  concentrated,  and  the  percentage 
digestibility  is  increased.  Medical  men  are,  how- 
ever, inclined  to  regard  this  as  a  very  doubtful 
advantage  ;  at  least  they  consider  that  the  process 
is,  nowadays,  rather  overdone. 

Animal  foods  are  generally  rich  in  protein,  and, 
as  the  latter  is  always  associated  with  a  large  pro- 
portion of  water,  they  undergo  decomposition  very 
readily.  They  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  preserved  by 
simply  drying — ^it  is  very  difficult  to  drive  off  the 
water  without  spoiling  the  food — but  must  be 
treated  with  salt  or  some  other  antiseptic  for  this 
purpose. 

With  very  few  exceptions,  the  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  of  animal  foods  consist  entirely  of  fat ; 
this  constituent  is  generally  present  in  larger  or 
smaller  amount,  but  the  proportion  is  very  variable. 

Apart  from  the  unedible  portions,  the  digestibility 
of  animal  foods  is  very  high  ;  for  most  of  them  it 
may  be  taken  roughly  as  100  per  cent.  In  general, 
animal  foods  are  more  expensive  than  those  of 
vegetable  origin. 

Of  the  vegetable  foods,  some,  e.g.    fresh  fruits 


GENERAL  PROPERTIES  OF  FOODS  67 

and  vegetables,  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of 
water,  while  others,  e.g.  cereals,  etc.,  are  sold  in  a 
comparatively  dry  state.  The  former  decompose 
readily,  but  the  latter  may  be  kept  in  good  condition 
indefinitely. 

As  compared  with  the  animal  foods,  they  generally 
have  a  somewhat  lower  nutritive  ratio,  though 
some  of  them,  owing  to  the  comparatively  dry 
condition,  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  protein. 

The  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  consist  mainly 
of  carbohydrates — chiefly  starch  and  sugar — but 
a  few  vegetable  foods  contain  considerable  propor- 
tions of  fat.  The  latter  are  generally  relatively 
deficient  in  carbohydrates. 

The  fibre  which  is  present  in  all  plants,  and, 
therefore,  in  most  vegetable  products,  consists  of 
cellulose  and  belongs  to  the  carbohydrate  group 
(p.  32).  Except  in  very  young  and  tender  plants, 
it  is  practically  indigestible,  and  is  not,  therefore, 
included  with  the  total  carbohydrate  in  estimating 
the  nutritive  value  of  the  food. 

Certain  kinds  of  cellulose  undergo  chemical 
changes  in  the  intestines  and  gaseous  products  ^  are 
evolved.  The  production  of  intestinal  gases  is 
chiefly  due  to  this  cause. 

The  digestibility  of  vegetable  products  is  con- 
siderably lower  than  that  of  animal  foods ;  in 
ordinary  cases,  it  varies  from  about  75  to  85  per 
cent.,  and  may  be  taken,  roughly,  as  about  80  per 
cent,  of  all  the  nutrients  in  the  edible  part  of  the 
food. 

The    composition    of   plants,    especially    of   the 
vegetative  organs — roots,  stems  and  leaves — ^is  very 
variable.     It  depends  largely  upon  the    age,  i.e. 
^  Chiefly  hydrogen  and  methane. 


68  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

tlie  stage  of  growth  of  the  plant.  Those  parts 
which  are  always  taken  at  or  about  the  same  stage 
of  growth,  e.g.  fruit  and  seeds,  are  more  nearly 
constant,  but  the  composition  of  these  also  is 
affected  by  the  ripeness,  conditions  under  which 
they  have  been  gathered,  etc. 

Vegetable  foods  are,  generally,  much  cheaper 
than  animal  products  containing  a  like  amount  of 
nutrients. 

The  price  of  food  fluctuates  from  time  to  time, 
and  varies  in  different  locaHties  ;  it  depends  upon 
the  quality  of  the  goods  and  usually  also,  to  some 
extent,  on  the  quantity  purchased.  For  example, 
apples  are  often  quoted  at  2d.  per  lb.  or  7  lb.  for 
\s.  ;  oatmeal  is  priced  at  IJ^Z.,  2d.  and  2^d.  per  lb. 
according  to  quality.  In  this  case,  and  in  many 
others,  the  quahty  is  purely  a  matter  of  taste  ;  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  cheapest  does  not  differ 
perceptibly  from  that  of  the  most  expensive. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  otherwise. 

The  prices  quoted  in  this  section  are  the  retail 
prices  current  in  the  London  Stores  for  high  class 
goods  in  their  proper  season.  ^In  the  case  of  butcher's 
meat,  the  prices  are  for  good  quality  English  meat ; 
chilled  or  frozen  meat  from  foreign  and  colonial 
sources  can  be  obtained  at  rates  about  20  to  30  per 
cent,  lower. 


CHAPTER   VI 
BXJTCHER'S  MEAT 

Home  from  my  office  to  my  Lord's  lodgings, 
where  my  wife  had  got  ready  a  very  fine  dinner — 
viz.,  a  dish  of  marrow  bones  ;  a  leg  of  mutton ; 
a  loin  of  veal ;  a  dish  of  fowl,  three  pullets  and  a 
dozen  of  larks  all  in  a  dish  ;  a  great  tart,  a  neat's 
tongue,  a  dish  of  anchovies  ;  a  dish  of  prawns  and 
cheese. 

Pepys'  Diary. 

Butcher's  meat  consists  of  the  carcasses  of  oxen, 
sheep — including  veal  and  lamb — ^and  pigs,  to 
gether  with  the  edible  portions  of  the  viscera  such 
as  kidneys,  liver,  etc.  Other  animals,  e.g.  deer, 
goats  and  horses,  are  sometimes  used,  but  they  are 
not  considered  here. 

BEEF 

The  weight  of  oxen  varies,  according  to  the 
breed,  age  and  condition  of  the  animals,  from 
about  1,000  lb.  to  1,500  lb.  In  general,  the  weight 
of  a  well  fed  ox,  three  years  old,  is  about  1,200  lb. 
when  it  comes  into  the  hands  of  the  butcher. 

The  animal  is  killed  by  bleeding ;  the  pelt 
and  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  viscera  are  re- 
moved, and  the  head,  tail  and  lower  joints  of  the 
limbs  are  cut  off.  The  weight  of  the  dressed  car- 
cass is  then  about  600  or  800  lb.,  i.e.  about  60 

69 


70 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


per  cent,  of  the  total  live  weight.  By  cutting 
radially  through  the  middle  of  the  back  bone,  the 
carcass  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  called  "  sides 
of  beef,''  each  of  which  may  weigh  from  300  to  400 
lb.  The  anterior  portion,  including  the  ribs,  is 
known  as  the  fore  quarter,  and  the  remainder — 
the  posterior  portion — ^as  the  hind  quarter.  The 
former  weighs  from  110  to  160  lb.,  and  the  latter 
from  200  to  260  lb.  In  some  cases  they  are  divi- 
ded so  as  to  be  of  nearly  equal  weights. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  the  quarters  for  retail 
varies  slightly  in  different  localities,  but  the  common 
practice  in  this  country  will  be  understood  from  the 
illustration  (Fig.  5). 


Fig.  5. 


The  hind  quarter  is  divided  into  (a)  the  leg,  (b) 
round,  (c)  aitchbone,  (d)  rump,  (e)  thick  flank,  (/) 
thin  flank,  and  (g)  sirloin.  The  forequarter  com- 
prises (h)  fore  rib,  (^)  middle  rib,  (j)  chuck,  (k) 
brisket,  (l)  clod,  (m)  shin,  and  (n)  neck  or  stick- 
ing piece. 

Legs  and  shins  are  very  similar  in  composition 
and  quality.     They  weigh  from  10  to  20  lb.  each. 


BUTCHER^S  MEAT  71 

and  are  sold  at  5d.  per  lb.  If  a  portion  of  the  adja- 
cent cuts  is  included,  higher  prices  are  charged. 
About  half  the  total  weight  of  these  pieces  is  bone  ; 
they  are  used  chiefly  for  making  stock  for  soups, 
and  meat  jellies.  The  meat  is  rather  hard  and 
strong  tasted,  but  is  practically  free  from  fat ;  it 
may  be  purchased  separately  at  about  7d.  per  lb. 
When  properly  cooked,  it  makes  excellent  stew. 

The  upper  part  of  the  hind  limb,  called  the 
"  round,''  includes  the  great  thigh  bone  and  the 
meat  attached  to  the  same.  The  whole  piece  weighs 
about  40  or  50  lb.  including  some  3  or  4  lb.  of  bone. 
The  meat  is  usually  very  lean,  but  is  too  hard  for 
first  quality.  The  portion  from  the  inside  of  the 
leg  is  the  more  tender,  and  is  distinguished  as  the 
topside,  as  it  generally  lies  uppermost  in  the  shops. 
The  topside  may  amount  to  about  25  lb.  weight, 
and  is  sold  at  9d.  per  lb.  for  the  whole  piece  or  lOd. 
per  lb.  in  cuts.  The  middle  portion  is  more  highly 
esteemed  than  either  end,  and  a  higher  price — 
usually  lO^d.  per  lb. — is  charged  for  it.  The  outside 
portion  of  the  leg,  commonly  called  the  silver  side, 
weighs  from  20  to  24  lb.  and  is  sold  at  8(i.  per  lb. 
for  the  whole  piece  or  9d.  for  prime  cuts.  The 
round  yields  good  boneless  roasts  and  beef  steak. 
The  silver  side  is  often  pickled  for  boiling. 

The  aitch  bone  is  a  wedge-shaped  joint  taken 
from  between  the  round  and  the  rump.  It  weighs 
about  14  or  16  lb.,  including  from  2  to  2 J  lb.  of  bone, 
and  is  sold  at  Q^d.  per  lb.  ;  smaller  pieces,  including 
a  larger  proportion  of  bone,  are  sold  at  6d.  per 
lb.,  and  those  of  larger  size,  including  portions  of 
the  round  or  rump,  and,  therefore,  having  a  smaller 
proportion  of  bone,  are  more  expensive.  The  meat 
is  not,  as  a  rule,  very  fat ;   it  is  fairly  tender  and 


72  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

makes  good  roasts,  but  it  is  esteemed  of  second 
quality. 

The  rump,  as  a  whole,  weighs  from  26  to  30 
lb.,  including  from  3|  to  5  lb.  of  bone.  The  meat 
of  this  portion  is  slightly  fatter  than  that  of  the 
round  ;  it  is  of  first  quality  and  very  tender.  It  is 
sold  at  lO^d.  per  lb.  for  the  whole  piece  or  lid.  for 
the  top  end  (i.e.  the  anterior  end).  Smaller  cuts, 
e.g.  rump  steaks,  are  charged  at  Is.  2d.  per  lb.  ; 
these  of  course  are  free  from  bone  and  unedible 
parts. 

The  term  sirloin  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
whole  of  the  loin  piece,  amounting  to  about  30  or 
40  lb.,  between  the  rump  and  the  ribs.  It  includes 
from  3 J  to  4 J  lb.  of  bone,  and  is  sold  at  lie?,  per  lb. 
for  the  whole  piece  or  Is.  per  lb.  for  prime  cuts. 
In  some  localities,  the  anterior  portion  is  known  as 
the  small  end  of  loin  or  short  steak,  and  the  term 
sirloin  is  reserved  for  the  posterior  end  next  the 
rump.  The  middle  portion,  including  the  larger 
part  of  the  undercut  and  the  kidney  suet,  is  known 
as  the  tender  loin.  Porterhouse  steaks  are  cut 
from  this  part  and  sometimes  also  from  the  small 
end,  but  the  sirloin  is  chiefly  used  for  roasting. 
The  meat  is  all  of  first  quaHty  and  resembles  that 
of  the  rump,  but  is  generally  rather  leaner. 

The  thick  flank  piece  weighs  from  24  to  28  lb. 
It  contains  no  bone,  but  the  sinew  and  unedible 
matter  amounts  to  about  J  lb.  The  meat  is  ranked 
as  second  quality,  i.e.  as  inferior  to  the  rump  and 
sirloin,  for  roasting,  but  it  is  a  prime  boiling  piece, 
and  is  often  salted  or  corned.  It  can  be  obtained 
for  Sd.  per  lb.  for  the  whole  piece  or  9J^.  in  cuts. 

The  thin  flank  is  of  markedly  inferior  quality, 
and,  as  it  is  not  easily  sold,  the  whole  piece,  weighing 


BUTCHER^S  MEAT  73 

from  20  to  26  lb.,  may  be  purchased  at  5d.  per  lb. 
or  5^d.  for  smaller  cuts.  It  contains  no  bone,  but 
from  2  to  10  per  cent,  of  it  is  unedible  ;  it  is  chiefly 
used  for  sausage  making  and  similar  purposes.  The 
edible  portion  is  not  unduly  fat  or  strong  tasted  and, 
minced  or  stewed,  it  makes  excellent  food.  At  the 
price  mentioned,  it  is  by  far  the  most  "  profitable  " 
portion  of  beef. 

The  rib  cuts  weigh,  altogether,  from  35  to  50 
lb.  The  finest  part,  known  as  the  wing  ribs,  is 
cut  from  the  posterior  end,  i.e.  next  to  the  sirloin, 
and  is  sold  at  Is.  per  lb.  From  this  forward,  the 
proportion  of  bone  gradually  increases,  and  the 
prices  are  correspondingly  lower.  The  middle 
portion,  commonly  called  the  fore  rib,  is  the  largest ; 
it  weighs  from  24  to  30  lb.,  including  from  5  to 
6  lb.  of  bone,  and  is  sold  at  lid.  per  lb.  The  anterior 
portion,  about  12  or  16  lb.,  known  as  the  middle 
or  back  rib,  is  sold  at  about  8^d.  per  lb.  The  rib 
cuts  are  prime  roasting  pieces.  The  meat  is  tender 
and  of  excellent  flavour  ;  it  is  often  cut  off  from 
the  bone  and  rolled. 

The  chuck  or  top  ribs,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
amounts  to  about  12  or  16  lb.,  but  if  a  portion  of 
the  shoulder  is  included,  it  may  be  more.  The 
whole  piece  may  be  bought  at  8^d.  per  lb.,  including 
bone,  but  it  is  chiefly  sold  as  steaks  of  second 
quality  at  lOd.  per  lb. 

In  the  brisket,  about  4  or  5  lb.  out  of  a  total 
weight  of  18  to  22  lb.  is  bone  and  unedible  matter. 
The  meat  is  tender  but  rather  fat,  and  is  chiefly 
used  for  salting  and  boiling.  It  costs  about  Td.  per 
lb.  in  small  cuts,  but  the  whole  piece  may  be  pur- 
chased at  6jc?.  per  lb. 

The  neck  and  clod  contain  a  large  amount  of 


74 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


bone  and  unedible  matter,  and  are  chiefly  used  for 
making  stock  and  gravies.  They  are  sold  at  5d.  or 
Qd.  per  lb.  The  term  clod  is  sometimes  used  by 
butchers  in  a  different  sense. 

VEAL 

The  term  veal  is  generally  understood  to  refer 
to  the  flesh  of  calves,  but  as  there  is  no  particular 
age  at  which  they  are  killed,  it  is  rather  indefinite, 
and  both  the  weights  and  the  composition  of  the 
joints  are  consequently  very  variable.  Veal  is  in 
season  only  from  February  to  November,  and  it  is 
best  in  the  summer  months.  It  is  not  cut  up  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  beef. 

The  average  prices  of  the  principal  joints  of 
veal  are  as  follows  : — 


Hind  Quarter. 

Price 
per  lb. 

Fore  Quarter, 

Price 
per  lb. 

(a)  Hock    .       .       . 

Qd. 

(e)  Breast 

Shd. 

(6)  Fillet    .      .      . 

Is.  Id. 

(/)  Neck(best  end) 

lO^d.  to 

(c)  Loin  (best  end) 

lOd. 

Is. 

(d)      „     (chump 

(g)      „     (scrag)  . 

Qd. 

end) 

9d. 

(h)  Shoulder.      . 

Sd. 

(i)    I^uckle  . 

6d. 

The  hock,  sometimes  called  the  hind  knuckle,  is 
the  lower  part  of  the  leg  ;  the  fillet  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  leg  and  corresponds  to  the  round  of 
beef  ;  the  portion  known  as  the  best  end  of  loin 
includes  the  rump,  and  the  chump  end  is  the  loin 
proper  ;  the  best  end  of  the  neck  is  really  the  ribs 
or  chuck,  and  the  scrag  is  the  anterior  portion  inclu- 
ding   the    neck   proper ;    the    knuckle,    sometimes 


BUTCHER^S  MEAT  76 

called  the  fore  knuckle,  corresponds  to  the  shin  of 
beef. 

MUTTON 

Mutton,  like  beef,  is  nominally  in  season  all  the 
year  round,  but  it  is  best  from  September  to  April. 
During  the  summer  months,  its  place  in  the  market 
is  largely  taken  by  lamb. 

The  total  live  weight  of  sheep,  like  that  of  oxen, 
varies  with  the  breed,  age  and  condition  of  the  animal, 
from  about  100  to  150  lb.  ;  the  average  is  about 
120  lb.  The  weight  of  the  dressed  carcass  is  usually 
about  60  or  80  lb. 

Mutton  is  cut  up  for  retail  in  a  very  simple 
manner.  The  hind  quarter  is  divided  merely  into 
the  leg  and  the  loin  ;  the  two  loin  parts,  when  un- 
divided, are  known  as  the  saddle  of  mutton.  The 
joints  of  the  fore  quarter  are  the  shoulder,  breast 
and  neck.  The  neck,  so  called,  really  includes  the 
ribs  or  chuck,  and  the  posterior  part  is  known  as 
the  best  end  ;  the  anterior  portion,  or  neck  proper, 
is  called  the  scrag  or  top  end. 

Legs  weigh  from  8  to  10  lb.  each  ;  of  this  from 
IJ  to  1|  lb.  is  bone.  Smaller  joints  are  often 
charged  at  higher  rates,  but  the  average  price  is 
about  lOd.  per  lb. 

Loins  weigh  from  7  to  9  lb.  The  proportion 
of  bone  is  rather  less  than  in  legs,  but  the  meat  is 
fatter,  and  the  price  is  usually  higher,  viz.  from 
lOd.  per  lb.  for  the  whole  piece  to  Is.  Id.  per  lb.  for 
the  best  end,  trimmed. 

Shoulders  weigh  from  6  to  8  lb.,  and  cost  from 
Sd.  to  9d.  per  lb.  The  meat,  like  that  of  the  leg, 
is  lean,  but  the  proportion  of  bone  is  large,  amounting 
in  some  cases  to  a  quarter  of  the  total  weight. 


76  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  best  end  of  the  neck,  usually  about  4  or  5 
lb.  weight,  is  sold  at  10^.  per  lb.  It  is  not  quite 
so  fat  as  the  loin,  but  includes  a  larger  proportion 
of  bone — ^about  3  oz.  per  lb.  The  top  end  of  the 
neck,  or  scrag,  contains  about  4J  oz.  bone  to  the 
lb.  but  is  not  so  fat.  It  weighs  about  2  or  3  lb.  and 
is  sold  at  6d.  per  lb. 

The  breast  includes  the  lower  ends  of  the  ribs 
and  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  unedible. 
The  meat  is  very  fat,  and  as  it  is  not  much  appre- 
ciated, is  sold  at  4:d.  per  lb. 

Mountain  sheep,  e.g.  the  Welsh  and  Cheviots, 
are  usually  smaller  than  the  common  English 
breeds.  The  meat  is  very  lean,  dark  coloured, 
and  possesses  a  rich  flavour  that  is  much  appre- 
ciated. Such  mutton  is,  therefore,  generally  quoted 
at  higher  prices.  The  properties  mentioned  appear 
to  be  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the  fact  that  the 
sheep  are  mountain  bred,  and  are,  therefore,  half 
starved  and  very  active.  It  is  certainly  a  fact 
that  when  these  sheep  are  reared  on  rich  lowland 
pastures,  they  grow  much  larger  and  fatter,  and 
the  mutton  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  that  of 
the  common  English  breeds.  Mutton  from  Wales, 
it  wiU  be  seen,  has  not  necessarily  the  qualities  of 
"  Welsh  Mutton  '*  unless  it  be  mountain  reared. 

LAMB 

Lamb  is  in  season  only  from  March  to  September, 
though  it  may  be  had  at  other  times  of  the  year. 
It  is  best  from  May  to  July  ;  when  very  young  it  is 
apt  to  be  flabby  and  tasteless,  and  when  more 
than  six  months  old,  it  resembles  mutton,  but 
has  not  the  firm  texture  and  rich  flavour  of  the 
latter. 


BUTCHER^S  MEAT 


77 


As  in  the  case  of  veal,  the  weight,  composition 
and  price  of  the  various  joints  vary  with  the  age  of 
the  animal.  The  following  are  about  the  average 
prices  in  the  month  of  August. 


Hind  Quarter. 


Whole, 

Leg. 

Loin 


lid. 

Is. 

lid. 


per  lb. 


Fore  Quarter. 


Whole. 
Shoulder 
Breast . 
Neck   . 


9ld.  per  lb. 
llc^.       „ 
Id.       „ 

nd.    „ 


PORK 


Fresh  pork  is  in  season  only  during  the  winter 
months,  and  is  at  its  best  from  November  to  March. 
Pigs  are  killed  at  different  ages  and  varying  degrees 
of  fatness,  and  the  weight  consequently  varies 
within  much  wider  limits  than  does  that  of  sheep 
and  oxen.  The  very  large  and  fat  animals  gener- 
ally go  to  the  curers  ;  of  those  killed  for  fresh  pork, 
the  live  weight  may  run  from  about  80  to  400 
lbs. 

The  hind  quarter  includes  the  leg  and  the  hind 
loin  ;  the  fore  quarter  comprises  the  foreloin,  the 
hand  or  shoulder,  the  belly  or  spring  and  the 
head. 

In  the  leg  and  hand,  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the 
total  weight  is  bone,  and  usually  from  J  to  J  of  the 
meat  is  fat.  In  the  loin  cuts,  the  proportion  of  fat 
is  about  the  same,  but  the  proportion  of  bone  and 
unedible  matter  is  nearly  double.     The  belly  part,  or 


78 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


spring,  contains  no  bone  but  about  1  oz.  in  each 
lb.  is  unedible  and  usually  more  than  half  the  meat 
is  fat ;  it  is  very  often  pickled  and  boiled. 

In  this  country,  pork  is  eaten  perhaps  more 
largely  in  the  cured  than  in  the  fresh  condition.  It 
is  subjected  to  a  process  of  salting,  either  with  dry 
salt,  or  by  steeping  in  brine,  and  sometimes  smoked. 
It  is  then  commonly  known  as  bacon  ;  this  term, 
however,  is  sometimes  applied  exclusively  to  the 
body  or  trunk  portion,  and  the  hind  limb  is  distin- 
guished as  ham,  but  the  "  side  of  bacon  "  generally 
includes  the  ham  or  gammon  as  it  is  called.  Bacon 
is  not  cut  up  quite  in  the  same  manner  as  fresh  pork, 
and  the  various  cuts  are  known  in  the  trade  by 
dijfferent  (i.e.  special)  names.  The  three  principal 
parts  of  the  side  are  the  fore-end,  middle  and  hind 
end,  and  these  are  subdivided  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration (Fig.  6). 


The  average  weights  and  prices  of  the  pieces  are 
as  follows  : — 


BUTCHER'S  MEAT 


79 


Piece. 

Average 
Weight. 

Average 
Price  per  lb. 

A.  Fore  End— 

1.  Collar 

2.  Forehock 

B.  Middle— 

3.  Thick  streaky    .... 

4.  Thin  streaky      .... 

5.  Flank 

6.  Back  and  ribs    .... 

7.  Long  loin 

C.  Hind  End — 

8.  Corner  of  gammon  . 

9.  Gammon 

lb. 

8 
8 

8 
4 
3 

8 

7 

4 
10 

d. 

n 

5 

n 

7 
7 

Whole  side 

60 

8^ 

COMPARISON 

The  several  kinds  of  meat — beef,  mutton,  pork, 
etc. — exhibit  strongly  marked  differences  of  colour, 
odour,  and  flavour,  which  render  them  more  or  less 
agreeable  to  certain  individuals.  Certain  kinds  of 
meat  are  apt  to  disagree  with  some  persons,  and  it 
is  often  said  that  these  are  less  digestible.  It  is 
probable  that  they  do  differ  to  some  extent  in  digesti- 
bility, i.e.  in  the  length  of  time  required  for  com- 
plete peptonization,  but  the  differences  have  prob- 
ably been  greatly  exaggerated.  Lamb  and  veal  are 
softer  in  texture  than  mutton  and  beef,  and  it  is 
commonly  believed  that  they  are  more  readily 
digestible.  There  is  very  little  certain  information 
on  this  subject,  but  such  as  is  available  tends  to  cast 
doubt  upon  the  popular  notions. 


80  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

It  is  true,  in  general,  that  the  meat  from  old  and 
poorly-fed  animals  is  harder  and  more  difficult  to 
masticate  than  that  from  younger  and  better  fed 
beasts,  and  it  may  be  therefore  concluded  that  it 
is  not  so  easily  digestible. 

It  is  not  true,  however,  though  it  is  very  generally 
believed  to  be,  that  the  softer  and  more  tender 
kinds  of  meat  are  of  a  more  watery  and  less  nourishing 
character  than  that  from  more  mature  animals. 
On  examination  of  the  tables  in  the  appendix,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  vari- 
ous kinds  and  cuts  of  meat  is  very  variable — it 
depends  largely  upon  the  proportion  of  bone  and  fat 
they  contain — but  the  ratio  of  water  to  protein  is 
approximately  constant.  The  ratio  is  about  33 
to  1  in  aU  kinds  and  cuts  of  meat,  and  is  nearly  the 
same  in  fat  and  lean  portions  ;  in  veal  it  is  a  little 
higher,  viz.,  about  3*5  to  1,  but  in  lamb  it  is  slightly 


All  kinds  of  fresh  meat  must  therefore  be  re- 
garded as  practically  alike  in  this  respect,  but  cured 
meats  are  often  different ;  smoked  bacon,  for  in- 
stance, is  a  partially  dried  product,  and  contains 
only  about  2  parts  of  water  to  1  of  protein. 

The  proportion  of  bone  in  the  different  portions  of 
meat  is  chiefly  of  importance  from  the  point  of  view 
of  pecuniary  economy.  The  proportion  of  fat  is, 
perhaps,  of  less  importance  in  that  connexion  but, 
to  a  large  extent,  it  determines  the  character  of  the 
meat  and  the  dietetic  purposes  for  which  it  is  suit- 
able. Of  course,  much  depends  upon  the  condition 
of  the  beast  in  this  respect,  but  it  may  be  said  that, 
in  general,  beef  is  leaner  and  pork  is  fatter  than 
mutton  ;  and  that  lamb  and  veal  are  not  so  fat  as 
mutton  and  beef  respectively. 


82  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  proportions  of  bone,  fat  and  lean  in  various 
pieces  of  meat  are  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  7). 

SUNDRIES 

Under  this  head  may  be  included  all  those  organs, 
etc.,  which,  though  not  part  of  the  carcass  proper, 
are  sometimes  used  as  food. 

Ox-tails  contain  nearly  a  third  of  their  weight  of 
bone,  and  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  meat  entirely 
from  it.  They  are  used  practically  only  for  making 
soup,  to  which  they  impart  a  peculiar  flavour  that  is 
much  esteemed.  Ox-tails  cost  from  Is.  3d.  to  Is.  Qd. 
each.  A  much  larger  amount  of  shin  or  other  stock 
meat  could  be  obtained  for  a  similar  expenditure. 

Ox  tongues  vary  in  size  from  about  4  to  6  lb. 
The  meat  is  lean,  but  rather  tough,  and  about  a 
fourth  of  the  whole  is  unedible.  They  are  usually 
pickled,  but  may  be  eaten  fresh,  and  are  almost 
invariably  boiled.  The  price  of  fresh  tongues  at  the 
butchers  is  about  2s.  Qd.  or  35.  6d.  each;  when 
pickled  they  are  more  expensive. 

Sweetbreads — ^the  pancreatic  glands — ^are  es- 
teemed a  rare  delicacy.  The  meat  is  soft,  easily 
masticated,  and  is  supposed  to  be  readily  digestible. 
It  contains  about  4  parts  of  water  to  1  of 
protein,  i.e.  considerably  more  than  ordinary  meat. 
A  pair  of  good  ox  sweetbreads,  free  from  unedible 
matter,  weigh  about  f  lb.  and  are  sold  at  Is.  Qd. 
Lamb  sweetbreads  weigh  about  2  oz.  and  cost  about 
2d.  each.     Those  of  sheep  are  smaller  and  cheaper. 

Kidneys  are  found  attached  to  the  loins,  and  when 
sold  separately,  are  usually  dissociated  from  the 
fat  in  which  they  are  always  embedded,  even  in 
lean  animals.     The  meat  is  practically  all  lean,  but 


BUTCHER'S  MEAT  83 

unless  very  carefully  cooked,  is  apt  to  be  hard — al- 
though it  contains  about  4  J  parts  of  water  to  1  of 
protein — and  is  considered  rather  indigestible. 

Ox  kidneys  weigh  from  about  1  lb.  to  1 J  lb.  each 
and  cost  about  Is.  per  lb.  Those  of  sheep  and  pigs 
are  smaller — ^from  1  to  2  oz. — and  are  sold  at  2d. 
to  3d.  each.  Ox  kidneys,  as  purchased,  generally 
include  a  certain  amount  of  unedible  matter. 

Liver  somewhat  resembles  kidneys  in  appearance 
and  in  chemical  composition,  but  differs  markedly 
in  flavour  and  other  respects.  Ox  liver  is  very 
rarely  used  as  food  for  human  beings.  Sheep's 
liver  weighs  from  1|  to  3  lb.  and  can  be  purchased 
for  about  5d  per  lb.  Lamb's  liver  is  more  expensive 
owing  to  the  greater  demand  for  it. 

Ox  hearts  weigh  from  4  to  6  lb.,  and  cost  about  2^. 
each.  The  meat  contains  a  considerable  proportion 
of  fat,  and  as  it  is  very  hard  and  unpalatable,  it  is 
rarely  used  as  food  for  human  beings.  Sheep's 
hearts  weigh  from  6  to  8  oz.  and  cost  about  2d.  or  3d. 
each.  In  chemical  composition,  they  resemble  ox 
hearts,  but  are  not  quite  so  tough.  They  are 
generally  sold  along  with  the  lungs  and  liver,  the 
whole  being  known  as  a  "  sheep's  pluck."  The 
lungs  or  lights,  as  they  are  called,  weigh  about  4  or 
5  oz.  ;  the  meat  is  lean  and  resembles  ordinary 
meat  in  composition,  but  is  considered  not  very 
agreeable  in  taste.  The  price  of  the  sheep's  pluck 
is  about  Is.  or  Is.  3d.  each. 

AU  these  tough  meats  are  rendered  more  readily 
digestible  when  minced  or  reduced  to  the  j&nely 
shredded  condition  of  potted  or  sausage  meat ; 
they  may  then  be  well  salted,  spiced  and  mixed 
with  breadcrumbs,  and  so  rendered  more  palatable. 

Tripe  is  the  substance  of  the  large  receptacle  or 


84  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

first  stomach  of  the  animal.  The  total  quantity 
obtainable  from  a  full  grown  ox  is  about  10  or  12 
lb.  It  is  cleaned  and  dressed  by  the  butcher,  and 
is  sold,  free  from  unedible  matter,  at  Qd.  per  lb. 
It  is  practically  free  from  fat,^  and,  by  prolonged 
boiling,  may  be  rendered  very  tender.  It  is,  how- 
every,  watery  in  character;  it  contains  about  7| 
parts  of  water  to  1  of  protein,  i.e.  more  than  twice 
as  much  as  ordinary  meat.  In  other  words,  one 
pound  of  tripe  contains  less  nourishment  than  half 
a  pound  of  lean  beef  steak  or  other  meat  free  from 
bone. 

Suet  is  the  name  commonly  given  to  the  kidney 
fat  of  oxen  and  sheep  ;  that  of  pigs  is  generally 
known  as  lard.  Beef  suet,  as  purchased,  contains 
a  certain  amount  of  non-fatty  matter,  but  the  fat 
generally  amounts  to  over  80  per  cent.,  and  moisture 
to  10  or  12  per  cent.  It  is  sold  at  Td.  per  lb.  Mutton 
suet,  sometimes  known  as  tallow,  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  moisture  and  non-fatty  matter, 
and  is  sold  at  5d.  per  lb.  Pork  fat  is  derived 
both  from  the  back  and  belly  parts.  It  is  some- 
what softer,  i.e.  it  melts  at  a  lower  temperature, 
than  suet,  but  it  contains  about  the  same  pro- 
portion of  fat.  When  refined,  all  the  impurities 
are  removed,  and  the  pure  leaf  lard  contains  nothing 
but  fat. 

^  According  to  Atwater's  analyses,  pickled  tripe  con- 
tained only  12  p.c.  of  fat,  but  canned  tripe  contained  8*5 
p.c.  For  tripe  purchased  at  the  butchers,  other  authori- 
ties give  the  proportion  of  fat  as  from  10  to  15  p.c. 


CHAPTER   VII 
POULTRY,  GAME  AND  FISH 

It  is  observed  by  the  most  learned  physicians, 
that  the  casting  off  of  Lent  and  other  fish  days 
(which  hath  not  only  given  the  lie  to  so  many 
learned,  pious,  wise  founders  of  colleges,  for 
which  we  should  be  ashamed)  hath  doubtless  been 
the  chief  cause  of  those  many  putrid,  shaking, 
intermitting  agues,  unto  which  this  nation  of  ours 
is  now  more  subject  than  those  wiser  nations 
that  feed  on  herbs,  salads  and  plenty  of  fish ; 
of  which  it  is  observed  in  story,  that  the  greatest 
part  of  the  world  now  do.  And  it  may  be  fit 
to  remember  that  Moses  (Lev.  xi.  9  ;  Deut.  xiv. 
9)  appointed  fish  to  be  the  chief  diet  for  the  best 
commonwealth  that  ever  yet  was. 

The  Compleat  Angler, 

POULTRY 

The  weight  of  common  fowls  runs  from  about  3 
to  5  lb.  each.  The  unedible  matter,  consisting  of 
the  feathers,  head,  lower  joints  of  the  legs,  entrails 
and  bones,  form,  altogether,  about  a  quarter  of  the 
total  live  weight ;  the  entrails  alone,  not  including 
the  giblets,  weigh  from  6  to  8  oz.  In  chickens,  the 
proportion  of  unedible  matter  is  larger ;  in  very 
young  birds,  it  may  amount  to  more  than  half  the 
total  weight,  but  in  the  plumper  and  more  mature 
birds  it  is  not  so  much.    The  meat  of  chickens  is 

85 


86  ECONOMY    OF  FOOD 

very  lean — ^much  leaner  than  that  of  grown  fowls — 
but  the  proportion  of  water  to  protein  in  both,  is 
about  the  same  as  in  butcher's  meat.  The  price  of 
fowls  is  very  variable  ;  for  well-fed  birds  the  average 
is  about  35.  each  ;   roughly  about  I5.  per  lb. 

The  weight  of  turkeys  varies  from  about  10  to 
20  lb.,  though  both  larger  and  smaller  birds  can  be 
obtained.  Of  those  reared  for  the  Christmas  mar- 
ket, the  average  weight  is  about  12  or  15  lb.  Turkeys 
are  usually  fed  to  a  very  plump  condition  and  conse- 
quently the  proportion  of  refuse  is  somewhat  less 
than  in  common  fowls  ;  the  meat  also  is  both  fatter 
and  drier.  The  price,  at  Christmas,  runs  from 
about  lOd.  to  Is.  Id.  per  lb.  ;  the  average  is  about  Is. 

The'  meat  of  waterfowl — chiefly  ducks  and 
geese — ^also  is  drier  than  that  of  common  fowls, 
and  is  much  fatter.  At  Christmas,  ducks  weighing 
from  5  to  6  lb.  are  sold  at  45.  to  55.  6d.  each,  while 
geese,  which  weigh  from  8  to  12  lb.  each,  are  sold  at 
about  Sd.  per  lb. 

Rabbits  weigh  from  3  to  5  lb.  each.  The  weight 
of  the  pelt  is  from  5  to  8oz.,and  that  of  the  entrails 
about  the  same.  The  carcass  which  remains  when 
these  parts  are  removed  may  be  from  2  to  4  lb. 
weight,  including  the  head  ;  the  average  is  from  2| 
to  3  lb.  Rabbits  are  generally  sold  paunched,  i.e. 
with  entrails  removed,  but  with  the  pelts  on.  They 
fetch  from  I5.  to  I5.  Qd.  according  to  size.  Austra- 
lian (frozen)  rabbits  may  be  had  cheaper — ^from  9d. 
to  I5.  each. 

FRESH  FISH 

Of  the  many  different  kinds  of  fisht  hat  are  used  as 
food  in  this  country,  those  mentioned  below  are, 
perhaps,  the  most  important.     They  are  often  classi- 


POULTRY,   GAME  AND  FISH  87 

fied  as  round  and  flat  fish  ;  the  distinction  may  be 
convenient  for  certain  purposes,  but  it  bears  no  more 
relation  to  the  dietetic  value  than  a  division  into 
large  and  small  fish.  The  meat  of  fish  is  soft  in 
texture,  easily  masticated,  and,  it  is  supposed,  readily 
digestible.  It  contains,  as  a  rule,  more  water  to 
protein  than  butcher's  meat — ^in  some  cases  nearly 
twice  as  much — ^but  salmon  contains  actually  less, 
and  herring,  mackerel  and  some  others,  only  a  little 
more.  These  fish  are  frequently  described  as 
"  rich  '* ;  this  probably  refers  to  the  amount  of  fat 
rather  than  to  the  proportion  of  water  they  contain, 
but  it  might,  in  this  case,  be  applied  in  either  sense. 

Cod,  haddock,  hake  and  flounders  are  practically 
destitute  of  fat,  and  skate  contains  very  little.  The 
unedible  parts  of  fish — entrails,  tails,  heads,  skin, 
fins,  bones,  etc. — ^form  a  large  proportion,  usually 
more  than  half  the  total  five  weight.  In  flounders 
and  some  other  flat  fish  it  amounts  to  over  60  per 
cent.,  but  in  herrings  and  mackerel,  it  is  not  much 
over  40  per  cent. 

Some  fish  vary  in  size  within  very  wide  limits ; 
the  weights  given  below  are  only  approximate  aver- 
ages, both  larger  and  smaller  specimens  being  of 
common  occurrence.  The  prices  also  are  very  vari- 
able ;  those  quoted  are,  except  where  otherwise 
stated,  per  lb.,  for  the  whole  fish  weighed  before 
being  cleaned,  and  are  those  normally  prevailing 
when  the  fish  is  in  season.  Small  fish,  such  as  her- 
rings, flounders,  and  not  infrequently  mackerel, 
are  usually  priced  at  so  much  per  fish,  or  per  dozen  ; 
in  these  cases,  the  price,  per  lb.,  has  been  calculated 
from  the  average  weight.  Some  fish,  e.g.  skate  and 
halibut  are  often  so  large  that  they  could  not  be  con- 
veniently sold  whole,  and  the  retail  prices  quoted  are 


88 


ECONOMY  ^OF  FOOD 


for  cuts  only.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  speci- 
mens of  skate,  the  whole  fish  is  rarely  exposed  for  sale 
because  its  appearance  is  considered  very  unattract- 
ive. The  average  weights  and  prices,  and  times 
when  the  fish  are  in  season  are  as  follows  : — 


Fish. 

Average 
Weight. 

Season. 

Best. 

Price. 

lb. 

per  lb. 

Haddock    . 

1-4 

Aug.  to  Feb. 

Winter 

5d. 

Cod   .    .      . 

6-20 

Nov.  to  Mar. 

Feb.  to  Mar. 

4d.  ;  tail  cut, 

Qd. 
middle  cut,8d 

Hake     .      . 

8-16 

Whole  year 

Winter 

Same  as  cod. 

Flounder    . 

i-1 

»f 

Aug.  to  Nov. 

4d. 

Plaice    .      . 

i-4 

>> 

May  to  Nov. 

Qd  to  7d. 

Herring 

i-U 

May  to  Jan. 

June  to  Sept. 

Id.-l^d. 

Mackerel     . 

1-3 

Whole  year 

Apl.  to  July 

2d. 

Salmon . 

10-25 

Feb.  to  Sept. 

Summer 

1/4  to  1/6  ; 
middle  cut, 
1/9 

Turbot 

4-12 

Whole  year 

*) 

lOd.  to  1/- 

Skate    .      . 

10-50 

Sept.  to  April 

Oct.  to  Mar. 

Qd 

Halibut       . 

10-50 

Whole  year 

Nov.  to  Jan. 

7d.;cuts,10d. 

CURED  FISH 

Fish  are  cured  by  salting,  smoking  and  drying. 
The  larger  kinds  are  usually  first  prepared  by  re- 
moving the  entrails  and  cutting  off  the  heads  ;  the 
amount  of  refuse  is  thereby  greatly  reduced.  When 
the  fish  are  dried,  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of 
the  water  is  evaporated. 

The  amount  of  nourishment  in  any  given  fish  is 
not  perceptibly  affected  by  these  processes,  and 
when  they  are  sold,  like  herrings  for  example,  by 
the  dozen,  a  cured  fish  may  be  reckoned  simply  as 
equivalent  to  a  fresh  one.     But,  when  the  fish  are 


POULTRY,   GAME  AND  FISH  89 

sold,  like  cod,  by  weight,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  there  is  a  much  greater  amount  of  nourishment 
in  a  pound  of  the  cured  product  than  in  a  pound  of 
the  fresh  whole  fish. 

Herrings  are  pickled,  i.e.  salted,  whole  ;  they  are 
then  called  bloaters,  and  are  sold  at  Is.  to  2s.  per 
dozen.  When  salted,  dried  and  smoked  they  are 
called  red  herrings,  and  are  sold  at  from  Is  to  I5.  Qd. 
per  dozen.  Kippered  herrings  have  the  entrails 
removed,  but  the  heads  are  not  cut  off  ;  they  are 
lightly  salted  and  smoked,  with  partial  drying. 
They  cost  from  about  Is.  to  2s.  per  dozen. 

Haddocks  are  cured  in  a  similar  manner.  They 
are  cut  open,  the  heads  and  entrails  are  removed 
and  the  fish  are  then  lightly  salted  and  smoked. 
In  Scotland  they  are  called  Finnan  haddocks,  or 
Aberdeen  haddocks,  but  in  England  they  are  gener- 
ally known  as  Scotch  baddies,  or  simply  baddies. 
Sometimes  the  skin  and  bones  are  also  removed, 
leaving  the  "  fillet ''  free  from  refuse  of  any  kind. 
These  fillets  are  often  highly  salted,  but  are  usually 
only  lightly  smoked — sometimes  not  at  all — the 
beautiful  golden  colour  being  produced  by  a  dye- 
stuff  of  some  kind.  London  cured  haddocks  are 
sold  from  5d.  to  l<s.  Sd.  each,  according  to  size. 
Scotch  baddies  and  Aberdeen  fillets  are  usually 
priced  at  about  6d.  per  lb. 

Cod  or  ling  is  not  smoked,  but  only  salted  and 
dried,  after  removal  of  the  entrails,  head  and  skin. 
So  prepared,  it  may  be  purchased  at  about  4:d.  per 
lb.  In  the  table  in  the  appendix  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  dried  fish  is  given 
as  40-2  per  cent,  and  only  38-7  per  cent,  in  the  fresh 
fish.  This  is  due  to  the  smaller  proportion  of  refuse 
in  the  former.     A  simple  calculation  will  show  that 


90  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

the  proportion  of  water  in  the  edible  matter  of  the 
fresh  fish  is  over  80  per  cent.,  whereas  in  that  of  the 
cured  fish  it  is  only  53  per  cent. 

SHELLFISH 

The  so-called  shellfish  are  not  fishes  at  aU,  in  the 
scientific  sense  of  the  term  ;  they  belong  chiefly  to 
two  orders  known  to  zoologists  as  molluscs  and 
crustaceans.  The  former  includes  oysters,  clams, 
mussels,  cockles,  whelks,  and  also  snails  and  other 
similar  creatures.  The  latter  are  represented,  among 
the  esculents, by  crabs,  lobsters,  prawns,  shrimps,  etc. 

We  should  not,  therefore,  expect  to  find  much 
resemblance  between  the  two  groups,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  differ  widely  in  appearance, 
composition,  flavour  and  other  characters.  The 
members  of  each  group,  however,  bear  a  certain 
resemblance  to  each  other  in  regard  to  the  composi- 
tion of  the  edible  matter  and  other  respects. 

Of  the  molluscs,  oysters  stand  by  far  the  highest 
in  the  estimation  of  gourmets.  They  are  the 
most  expensive.  They  are  perhaps  more  tender, 
and  are  generally  supposed  to  be  more  readily  diges- 
tible than  any  of  the  others.  They  are  probably 
less  apt  to  disagree  with  people,  but  there  is  little 
or  no  certain  information  regarding  their  actual  or 
relative  digestibifity  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term. 
The  price  runs  from  about  Is.  to  25.  per  dozen.  The 
edible  matter  of  a  dozen  fresh  oysters  amounts  to 
about  J  lb.  ;  it  is  of  a  very  watery  character,  but  is 
practically  free  from  fat. 

Oysters,  clams,  mussels  and  similar  creatures 
undergo  decomposition  very  rapidly,  and,  when  not 
perfectly  fresh,  have  been  known  to  cause  ptomaine 


POULTRY,   GAME  AND  FISH  91 

poisoning.  They  are  often  found  near  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  which  may  be  contaminated  with  sewage, 
and  are  liable  to  be  infected  by  the  bacteria  of 
typhoid  and  other  diseases.  The  danger  is  more 
serious  when  the  creatures  are  eaten  uncooked. 

The  crustaceans,  crabs,  lobsters,  crayfish,  etc., 
bear  a  similar  resemblance  to  each  other,  but  they 
are  very  dijfferent  from  the  moUuscs.  When  whole, 
they  include  a  very  large  proportion  of  unedible 
matter,  but  the  edible  part  is  drier  and  contains 
nearly  twice  as  much  protein  as  that  of  oysters. 
Lobsters  weigh  from  6  to  24  oz.,  and  cost  from  9d, 
to  35.  Qd.  each  ;  crabs  are  about  the  same  weight, 
and  cost  from  M.  to  2<s.  6d.  each.  Prawns  cost 
9^.  per  dozen  (equal  to  about  7  oz.),  and  shrimps 
3d.  or  4:d.  per  pint  (equal  to  about  |  lb.). 

These  creatures  should  always  be  purchased  alive 
and  kept  alive  until  the  time  of  cooking,  because 
the  substance  decomposes  very  rapidly,  and  when 
only  slightly  tainted  may  produce  disastrous  results. 
Even  when  perfectly  fresh  they  are  found  to  disagree 
with  many  people,  and  give  rise  to  minor  disorders. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
DAIRY  PRODUCE 

Milk,  and  all  that  comes  of  milk,  as  butter  and 
cheese,  curds,  etc.,  increase  melancholy  (whey 
only  excepted,  which  is  most  wholesome) :  some 
except  asses'  milk.  The  rest,  to  such  as  are 
sound,  is  nutritive  and  good,  especially  for  young 
children,  but  because  soon  turned  to  corruption, 
not  good  for  those  that  have  unclean  stomachs, 
are  subject  to  headache,  or  have  green  wounds, 
stone,  etc. 

Burton's  "  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.''^ 

The  word  dairy  is  derived  from  the  old  English 
"  dey,"  a  farm  servant,  usually  a  female,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  make  cheese  and  butter,  to  attend  to 
the  calves,  poultry  and  other  odds  and  ends  of  a 
farm.  The  "  dey-ry  "  was  the  department  under 
her  care.i 

The  term  is  still  used  in  much  the  same  sense  ; 
and  dairy  produce  includes,  not  only  milk,  though 
that  is  by  far  the  largest  and  most  important,  but 
also  all  the  products — cream,  butter,  cheese,  etc. — 
derived  from  it,  eggs,  and  sometimes  poultry.  The 
last  have  been  considered  in  a  previous  chapter, 
and  need  not  be  further  referred  to. 

Milk  is  produced  by  the  females  of  all  species  of 
mammalia  after  the  birth  of  young,  for  which  it  is  the 

^  Eliezer  Edwards. 

92 


DAIRY  PRODUCE  93 

natural  pabulum.  It  is  only  by  depriving  the  pro- 
geny of  other  animals  of  this,  their  natural  nourish- 
ment, that  milk  becomes  available  as  human  food. 
The  milk  commonly  used  is  that  of  cows,  and  except 
when  otherwise  stated,  it  is  cow's  milk  that  is  re- 
ferred to.  The  milk  of  goats  is  also  used  to  some 
extent ;  it  is  very  convenient  for  small  families  who 
could  not  afford  to  keep  a  cow. 

Cow's  milk  is  not  more  suitable  than  that  of 
certain  other  animals,  but  it  is  the  most  convenient. 
Cattle  are  reared  for  other  purposes  ;  they  are  big 
animals,  and  the  naturally  large  yield  which  they 
produce  has  been  greatly  increased  by  careful  breed- 
ing for  many  generations. 

In  point  of  composition,  cow's  milk  is  not  the 
most  concentrated.  It  is  distinctly  inferior  to 
goat's  milk  in  this  respect.  The  composition  of  the 
milk  of  any  given  animal,  however,  is  remarkably 
constant.  It  varies  according  to  the  breed,  food 
and  other  circumstances  of  the  animal,  but  only 
within  comparatively  narrow  limits  ;  and  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  composition  of  milk  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  differ  much  from  the  average. 

Milk  is  not  a  very  highly  concentrated  food.  It 
contains  about  87  per  cent,  of  water  and  13  per  cent, 
of  solids.  The  latter  is  made  up  of  3-3  per  cent,  of 
protein,  4  per  cent,  of  fat,  5  per  cent,  of  carbohy- 
drates (sugar),  and  0-7  per  cent,  of  ash. 

The  fat  occurs  in  the  form  of  tiny  globules  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  liquid,  with  which  they 
form  a  kind  of  emulsion.  The  globules  are  easily 
distinguished  under  the  microscope,  and  present  the 
appearance  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  8).  The 
carbohydrate  being  in  solution  is  invisible.  A  small 
portion  of  the  protein  is  also  present  in  solution,  but 


94  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

by  far  the  larger  part — ^about  f  of  the  whole — is 
insoluble  in  water  ;  it  is,  however,  so  finely  divided 
that  it  remains  permanently  suspended,  and  the 
particles  are  indistinguishable  under  the  microscope. 


Fig.  8. 

Fat  Globules  in  Milk. 

(magnified  200) 

It  is  chiefly  owing  to  these  conditions  that  the  nutri- 
ents in  milk  are  so  much  more  readily  digestible 
than  those  of  other  foods,  e.g.  meat. 

The  soluble  part  of  the  protein  is  of  the  same 
nature  as  white  of  egg,  and  is  called  albumen.  It 
is  readily  coagulated  by  heat,  but  is  not  perceptibly 
affected  by  dilute  acids.  The  insoluble  portion  is 
called  casein.  It  is  not  so  readily  coagulated  by 
heat — ^milk  may  be  boiled  without  producing  the 
change — ^but  is  quickly  curdled  by  the  action  of 
acid,  and  by  certain  ferments,  e.g.  rennet. 

The  human  stomach  normally  contains  both  far- 


DAIRY  PRODUCE  95 

ments  and  acids  (p.  16).  These  produce  the  curd- 
ling effects  upon  the  casein,  which  is  therefore  pre- 
cipitated and  subsequently  peptonized.  The  clots 
are  digested  by  adults  without  difficulty,  but  in 
young  children  they  are  liable  to  set  up  inflammation 
and  other  disorders. 

This  does  not  occur  in  the  case  of  a  child  reared 
on  its  mother's  milk.  The  latter  contains  about 
the  same  proportion  of  water  and  fat,  more  sugar, 
but  less  protein  than  cow's  milk.  Moreover,  in 
mother's  milk  more  than  half  the  protein  consists 
of  albumen,  which  does  not  curdle  in  the  stomach. 

Should  it  be  necessary,  for  any  reason,  to  sub- 
stitute cow's  for  mother's  milk,  water  must  be 
added,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  diluted  product 
shall  contain  no  larger  a  proportion  of  casein  than 
mother's  milk,  i.e.  about  2  parts  of  water  to  1  of 
milk.  The  addition  of  water,  of  course,  reduces  the 
proportions  of  all  the  other  constituents  in  the  same 
degree,  but  they  can  be  replaced  by  the  addition  of 
sugar  and  cream.  The  latter  is  often,  perhaps 
generally,  omitted  because  fresh  cream  is  expensive 
and  not  always  available.  The  deficiency  of  fat  is 
said  to  be  a  cause  of  rickets  ;  it  may  be  partially 
compensated  by  using  a  larger  proportion  of  sugar, 
but  this  cannot  be  expected  to  agree  so  well  with 
the  infant. 

In  preparing  a  substitute  for  mother's  milk,  the 
quantities  should  be  measured  exactly  in  a  druggist's 
measuring  glass  which  can  be  obtained  for  a  few 
pence,  or  in  one  of  the  specially  graduated  glasses, 
such  as  the  "  Matema,"  which  are  sold  for  the  pur- 
pose. In  the  absence  of  special  medical  directions, 
the  following  quantities  may  be  used  :  3  oz.  milk, 
6  oz.  water,  1  oz.  cream  and  J  oz.  sugar  ;  this  gives 


96  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

a  total  quantity  of  |  pint.  The  water  should  be 
measured  first  and  the  sugar  dissolved  in  it,  then 
the  milk  and  cream  may  be  added.  The  cream 
should  be  separated — not  skimmed — so  as  to  be 
fresh,  and  the  sugar  should,  by  preference,  be  milk 
sugar  ;   it  is  obtainable  at  any  druggist's  shop. 

Practically  the  same  result  is  obtained  by  adding 
to  2  oz.  of  fresh  whole  milk  the  cream  skimmed  or 
separated  from  4  oz.,  and  the  whey  from  a  similar 
amount.  To  obtain  the  whey,  the  milk  is  coagu- 
lated with  rennet,  the  curd  is  then  thoroughly  broken 
up,  and  the  Hquid  strained  through  fine  muslin  ;  it 
should  be  boiled  to  destroy  the  fermentative  action 
of  the  rennet,  and  then  cooled.  This  process  is 
more  troublesome  and  more  expensive  than  the 
previous  one,  and  probably  gives  no  better  results. 
A  sterilized  product  of  this  kind  can  be  obtained 
commercially  under  the  name  of  "  humanized  milk," 
and  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  home-made  article. 

Milk  readily  undergoes  fermentation,  and,  in 
warm  weather,  preservatives  of  one  kind  or  another 
are  often  added  to  it  to  retard  the  process,  or  dis- 
guise the  effects.  The  preservatives  generally  con- 
sist of  antiseptics,  e.g.  salicylic  or  boric  acid  or 
formalin,  but  carbonates  are  also  sometimes  used. 
The  last  do  not  hinder  fermentation,  but  they  neu- 
tralize the  acid  that  is  formed,  and  so  keep  the  milk 
sweet.  The  quantities  used  are  so  smaU  that  they 
do  not  perceptibly  affect  the  taste  of  the  milk,  but 
they  are,  nevertheless,  objectionable.  Antiseptics 
are  inimical  to  digestion  in  proportion  to  their 
effectiveness,  and  are  liable  to  set  up  inflammation 
in  young  children  and  invahds. 

The  simplest  way  to  preserve  milk  is  to  boil  it  or 
steam  it.     This  destroys  all  the  ferments,  and  also 


DAIRY  PRODUCE  97 

any  germs  of  disease  which  it  may  contain.  The 
milk  is  then  said  to  be  sterilized.  The  process  is, 
however,  considered  objectionable  because  at  tem- 
peratures above  160°  F.  the  albumin  coagulates 
forming  a  scum  on  the  surface,  and  the  milk  ac- 
quires a  peculiar  "  burnt  "  taste.  Most  of  the  fer- 
ments and  bacteria  are  destroyed  at  temperatures 
considerably  below  that  of  boiling  water,  and  milk 
can  be  preserved,  without  producing  the  effects 
described,  by  exposing  it  for  some  time  to  a  tem- 
perature of  158°  F.  This  process  is  called  pasteur- 
ization, after  the  name  of  the  great  discoverer. 

Both  sterilized  and  pasteurized  milk  cail  be  ob- 
tained commercially  in  most  towns,  but  the  price  is 
somewhat  higher  than  that  of  ordinary  fresh  milk. 
The  latter  is  commonly  retailed  at  from  Sd.  to  ^d. 
per  quart,  which  is  equal  to  about  Hd.  or  l^d.  per 
lb. 

The  cream  may  be  removed  from  milk  either  by 
skimming  or  by  the  mechanical  separator.  The 
former  method  is  not  so  effective  as  the  latter,  and 
skim  milk  usually  contains  from  0-2  to  0-4  per  cent, 
of  fat.  Separated  milk  contains  hardly  any  fat, 
but  the  same  price  is  usually  charged  for  it  as  for 
skim  milk,  viz.,  Iji.  or  2d.  per  quart.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  other  ingredients  are  not  sensibly 
altered. 

The  composition  of  cream  is  very  variable,  especi- 
ally as  regards  the  proportion  of  fat  which  is  the 
essential  constituent.  In  cream  which  has  been 
skimmed  off,  the  proportion  of  fat  is  usually  about 
20  per  cent.,  but  it  depends  upon  the  temperature 
and  method  in  which  the  milk  is  set,  and  the  size  of 
the  globules  which  varies  in  the  milk  of  different 
breeds  of  cows.    In  cream  separated  by  the  centri- 

H 


98  ECONOMY   OF  FOOD 

fugal  machine,  the  proportion  of  fat  varies  from 
about  10  per  cent,  to  over  50  per  cent.,  according  to 
the  rate  at  which  the  machine  is  turned.  Two 
quahties  are  commonly  recognized,  viz.,  thick  or 
heavy  cream  which  contains  over  30  per  cent,  of 
fat,  and  hght  cream  in  which  the  proportion  is 
usually  under  20  per  cent. 

Cream  of  medium  quality,  i.e.  containing  about 
20  per  cent,  of  fat  is  sold  at  about  Is.  6d.  per  pint. 
Thick  cream  is,  of  course,  more  expensive. 

Butter  consists  essentially  of  milk  fat,  and  con- 
tains a  small  amount — usually  about  1  per  cent. — of 
proteids.  The  proportion  of  water  is  variable,  but 
should  not  exceed  16  per  cent,  at  the  outside  ;  the 
average  is  from  10  to  12  per  cent.  A  certain 
amount  of  salt  is  usually  added  to  preserve  the 
butter  and  improve  the  flavour,  and  some  artificial 
colour  is  often  introduced.  The  average  propor- 
tion of  fat  is  about  85  per  cent.  The  price  varies 
from  about  Is.  to  Is.  Qd.  per  lb. 

Margarine  is  a  substitute  for  butter,  and  is,  there- 
fore, made  to  resemble  it  as  closely  as  possible,  both 
in  appearance  and  composition.  It  is  made  chiefly 
from  animal  fats,  but  is  often  mixed  with  others 
of  vegetable  origin,  in  order  to  improve  the  flavour 
and  consistency.  Some  of  the  butter  substitutes 
used  by  vegetarians  are  made  wholly  from  nut  oils 
and  other  vegetable  fats.  Margarine  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  dairy  butter,  and  occasionally  it  is 
fraudulently  sold  in  place  of  the  latter.  All  these 
products  have  practically  the  same  nutritive  value 
as  pure  dairy  butter,  and  are  much  cheaper.  Good 
margarine  can  be  obtained  at  Id.  or  8d.  per  lb. 

Cheese  consists  essentially  of  partially  dried, 
compressed  milk  curd,     It  is  generally  made  from 


DAIRY  PRODUCE  99 

fresh  whole  milk  which  is  curdled  by  the  action  of 
rennet.  After  standing  some  time,  the  curd  is 
broken  up  and  the  whey  is  run  off.  The  whey  is 
mainly  water,  but  it  contains  most  of  the  sugar  and 
some  of  the  proteid  (albumen)  in  solution.  The 
curd  consists  mainly  of  casein,  but  contains  the 
fat  globules  of  the  milk  mechanically  enclosed  in 
it.  It  is  collected,  pressed,  and  when  allowed  to 
stand,  undergoes  a  peculiar  slow  fermentation,  by 
which  it  is  changed  from  the  green  to  the  ripe 
condition. 

By  conducting  the  operations  at  different  tem- 
peratures, varying  the  amount  of  salt  and  other 
details,  many  different  varieties  of  cheese  may  be 
produced. 

The  composition  of  cheese  is  very  variable,  and 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  characteristic  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds.  The  method  by  which  it  is  prepared, 
however,  determines  the  kind  of  fermentation  that 
takes  place,  and  it  is  upon  this  condition  that  the 
peculiar  flavour  and  properties  of  the  different 
kinds  of  cheese  chiefly  depend.  If  any  part  of  the 
cream  has  been  removed  from  the  milk,  the  cheese 
prepared  from  it  will  be  correspondingly  deficient 
in  fat.  Skim  milk  cheese  is  very  dry  and  unappe- 
tizing. Soft  cheeses  are  made  in  a  different  way,  and 
differ  considerably  in  composition  and  properties. 

The  eggs  principally  used  as  food  are,  of  course, 
the  common  hen's  eggs  ;  but  those  of  ducks,  geese, 
turkeys  and  certain  wild  fowl  are  also  employed. 
The  shell  forms  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
The  edible  matter  of  the  eggs  of  different  birds  is 
very  similar  in  composition,  but  in  those  of  water 
fowl  it  contains  a  rather  larger  proportion  of  fat. 

Several  distinct  parts  may  be  recognized  in  an 


100 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


egg, 


as  shown  in  the  illustration  (Fig.  9)  ;  for 
dietetic  purposes  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  distinguish  merely 
the  white  and  the  yolk. 
The  former  consists  of 
practically  pure  albumin 
plus  a  large  amount  of 
water.  The  latter  also 
contains  proteids  of  a 
somewhat  different  char- 
acter, a  large  amount  of 
fat  and  only  about  haK 
the  proportion  of  water 
that  is  present  in  the  white. 
The  average  composition  of 
the  two  parts  of  a  hen's  egg 
is  as  follows: — 


Fig.  9. 

Section  of  an  egg,  showing  air- 
chamber  (a) ;  chalaza  (c) ; 
germ  (g) ;  membrane  (m) ;  shell 
(«);  the  albuminous  iayers 
{u>,  w',  I*'),  and  yolic  (y). 


White 
Yolk 


Water. 
86-2 
49-5 


Protein. 
12-3 
15-7 


Pat. 

—  per  cent. 
33'3  ,,       ,, 


The  average  weight  of  hen's  eggs  is  a  little  under 
2  oz.  ;  they  run  about  eight  or  ten  to  the  pound, 
and  cost  anything  from  four  to  twenty-four  for  a 
shilling.  In  towns,  the  price  is  rarely  under  \d. 
each,  which  is  equal  to  about  ^d.  per  lb. 

Duck's  eggs  are  slightly  larger — about  six  or 
eight  to  the  pound — and  cost  about  \\d.  each. 
Turkey's  eggs  are  about  twice  and  goose  eggs  three 
times  the  size  of  hen's  eggs. 

When  eggs  are  boiled,  the  proteids  are  coagu- 
lated, i.e.  the  contents  change  from  a  semi-fluid 
to  a  solid  state.  This  change  does  not  perceptibly 
alter  the  composition  of  the  compounds,  and  does 
not  affect  the  dietetic  value  unless  the  eggs  are 


DAIRY  PROOtlCE"  '    "      ' "  ioi 

boiled  very  hard,  when,  of  course,  they  are  less 
readily  digestible.  Healthy  adults,  however, 
experience  no  difficulty  in  digesting  even  hard- 
boiled  eggs  if  they  are  properly  masticated. 

The  extremely  offensive  odour  of  rotten  eggs  is 
due  to  decomposition  of  the  proteids,  which  is 
caused  by  the  action  of  microbes.  The  latter  are 
so  minute  that  they  find  entrance  to  the  eggs  through 
the  pores  of  the  shell ;  but  if  they  are  excluded  the 
eggs  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  indefinitely. 
There  are  several  methods  by  which  this  may  be 
effected.  One  of  the  commonest  is  to  paint  the 
shell  over  with  a  solution  of  sodium  silicate  (water- 
glass)  which  blocks  up  the  pores,  and  so  hinders 
the  entrance  of  bacteria.  Vaseline  and  some  other 
substances  have  been  tried,  but  they  are  not  so 
good  as  water-glass. 

Another  plan  is  to  bury  the  eggs  in  finely  pow- 
dered slaked  lime,  or  in  common  salt.  These  sub- 
stances exclude  the  air,  and  by  their  antiseptic 
action  destroy  the  bacteria.  They  are  sometimes 
used  in  the  form  of  solutions.  Lime  has  the  dis- 
advantage that  it  acts  on  the  substance  of  the  shell 
and  renders  it  very  brittle.  It  is  said  also  to  im- 
part a  disagreeable  flavour  to  the  eggs,  but  this 
is  denied  by  many  who  have  used  the  method.  To 
be  successful,  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the 
eggs  should  be  perfectly  fresh  and  clean  to  begin 
with.  They  should  be  first  wiped  and  then  dipped 
in  hot  water  for  a  second  or  two  before  preserving. 
According  to  one  authority  eggs  may  be  preserved 
by  simply  immersing  them  in  boiling  water  for 
twenty  seconds.  This,  it  is  supposed,  destroys 
the  bacteria,  and  coagulates  a  thin  layer  of  albumen 
within  the  shell,  which  prevents  the  entrance  of 


102  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

others.  Eggs  packed  in  bran,  sawdust  or  other 
substance  which  excludes  the  air,  may  be  kept  much 
longer  than  those  packed  in  straw. 

Perfectly  fresh  eggs  are  semi-transparent,  and 
when  held  up  to  strong  light,  exhibit  a  uniform 
rose  tint  without  any  dark  spots.  The  air  chamber, 
also,  is  small.  A  cloudy  appearance  gradually 
develops,  becomes  darker  as  the  egg  gets  older 
and  finally  renders  them  opaque.  At  the  same 
time  the  size  of  the  air  space  increases.  This  is 
the  best  test  of  the  freshness  of  eggs. 


CHAPTER    IX 

VEGETABLE  FOODS  :  CEREALS,  FARIN- 
ACEOUS PRODUCTS,  ETC. 

Bread  of  flour  is  good. 

Sesame  and  Lilies. 

The  special  characteristic  of  these  foods  is  that 
they  contain  a  large  proportion  of  starch.  The 
proportion  of  protein  is  variable  but  not,  as  a  rule, 
very  large,  and  that  of  the  fats  is  generally  small. 

As  purchased,  they  contain  relatively  small 
amounts  of  water.  The  cereal  grains,  for  instance, 
are  comparatively  dry  when  harvested  ;  they  are 
further  dried  after  cutting,  and  usually  also  again 
in  the  processes  of  milling  and  preparation  to  which 
they  are  subjected. 

In  the  grains  of  cereals  the  fat  and  protein  are 
concentrated  towards  the  exterior,  i.e.  in  the  region 
next  the  husk  ;  but  as  they  are  there  associated 
with  a  large  amount  of  fibre,  the  nutrients  of  that 
part  of  the  grain  are  not  so  readily  digestible.  The 
exterior  portions  of  the  grain  are,  therefore,  gener- 
ally separated  in  the  process  of  milling,  and  are 
sold  under  the  name  of  bran,  pollards,  barley  meal, 
rice  meal,  etc.,  as  food  for  cattle  and  poultry.  The 
germ,  which  lies  at  the  centre,  consists  largely  of 
nitrogenous  matter,  but  is  very  small.     It  is  sur- 


104 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


rounded  by  a  thick  coating  of  starchy  matter,  and 
it  is  this  portion  of  the  grain  that  is  chiefly  used  as 
food. 

Wheat  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  cereal 
grains.  It  is  the  principal  bread  stuff,  and  is  also 
used  in  a  variety  of  other  forms.  Over  seven  mil- 
lion tons  of  dressed  wheat  grain  are  consumed 
annually  in  this  country,  i.e.  over  1  lb.  per  head 
of  the  population  daily.  Many  different  varieties 
of  wheat  are  grown  in  different  districts.  Some 
of  them  are  bearded  ;  some  are  red  and  others 
are  white  or  yellow  in  colour.  The  composition 
of  the  grain  is  more  or  less  characteristic  of  the 
variety,  but  varies  within  certain  limits  according 
to  the  climate,  season,  soil,  and  other  conditions 
under  which  the  plant  is  grown.  The  following 
results  were  obtained  on  analysis  of  250  samples 
of  wheat  grown  in  different  localities  : — 

Composition  of  Wheat  Grain. 


Protein  . 
Fat  .      .      . 
Carbohydrates 
Fibre     .      . 


Maximum. 

Minimum. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

24-6 

8-2 

2-6 

10 

77-3 

61-3 

64 

1-2 

Average. 


per  cent. 
124 

1-7 
67-9 

2-6 


The  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  (protein) 
is  always  greater  in  wheats  grown  in  hot,  dry  cli- 
mates. Such  grain  is  harder,  denser,  and  more 
translucent  in  appearance  than  others  which  con- 
tain a  larger  proportion  of  starch.  The  latter  have 
thinner  husks  and  skin  and  yield  a  larger  quantity 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  105 


of  fine  flour  on  grinding,  and  the  flour  is  more  suit- 
able for  making  bread  ;  they  are,  therefore,  deemed 
of  better  quality.  Some  samples  of  wheat  yield 
as  much  as  80  per  cent,  of  fine  flour,  and  others 
only  from  50  to  60  per  cent. 

Wheat  is  subjected  to  a  very  elaborate  process 
of  grinding  in  order  to  obtain  the  finer  qualities  of 
flour.  The  finest  flour  is  derived  from  the  inner 
portions  of  the  grain.  It  is  whiter,  more  starchy 
and  makes  better  bread  than  that  derived  from  the 
outer  parts.  The  latter  is  sold  as  second  and  third 
qualities.  The  bran  is  removed  by  processes  of 
repeated  grinding  and  sifting.  The  grain  is  some- 
times ground  up  whole  after  removal  of  the  husks 
and  skins.  The  product  is  called  whole  meal  or 
wheaten  meal,  and  is,  of  course,  practically  a  mix- 
ture of  bran  and  white  flour  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  some- 
times made  by  mixing  the  two. 

At  some  mills,  as  many  as  ten  different  grades  of 
flour  are  produced,  but  in  this  country  the  principal 
products  are  as  follows 


Finest  flour 
Seconds 
Middlings 
Tailings 
Sharps . 
Pollards 
Bran  . 
Waste  and  loss 


40  per  cent. 
18 
12 
8 

9^18  „ 

4 


100 


The  various  qualities  of  white  flour  do  not  differ 
much  in  chemical  composition.  They  contain,  as 
a  rule,  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  protein,  about 
75  per  cent,  of  starch  and  1  per  cent,  of  fat.  When 
the  starch  is  removed  by  the  action  of  saliva,  or  in 


106  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

other  ways,  a  yellowish  elastic  substance  called 
gluten  remains  behind.  It  consists  mainty  of  pro- 
tein, and  it  is  the  presence  of  this  substance  which 
gives  the  cohesive  plastic  character  to  dough  pro- 
duced by  kneading  flour  with  water.  This  is  the 
principal  difference  between  wheat  flour  and  pure 
starch. 

Fine  white  flour  of  various  makes  may  be  pur- 
chased in  sacks  of  280  lb.  at  about  l^d.  per  lb.,  in 
retail  quantities  at  2d.,  or  usually  7  lb.  for  a  shilling. 
The  finest  Hungarian,  self-raising  and  patent  flours 
are  more  expensive.  Inferior  grades  are,  of  course, 
somewhat  cheaper. 

Ordinary  loaf  bread  is  prepared,  essentially,  by 
mixing  the  flour  with  water,  kneading  the  dough 
— ^yeast  being  added  to  make  it  "rise" — and  then 
firing,  i.e.  baking,  it.  The  effects  of  these  processes 
are  more  fully  discussed  in  a  later  chapter  (p.  139), 
but  it  may  be  said  now  that  the  chemical  changes, 
though  important,  are  not  very  extensive.  The 
composition  of  bread  does  not,  therefore,  differ 
much  from  that  of  the  flour  except  in  regard  to 
the  proportion  of  water  it  contains.  This  also 
constitutes  the  largest  difference  between  one 
sample  of  bread  and  another. 

Fresh  white  bread  usually  contains  from  35  to 
40  parts  of  water,  8  or  9  of  protein,  from  50  to  60 
of  carbohydrates,  and  1  of  fat,  per  cent.  Brown 
bread,  made  from  whole  meal,  contains  a  slightly 
larger  proportion  of  protein  and  fat.  As  compared 
with  white  bread  the  difference  in  nutritive  value 
is  small,  but  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  coarser 
elements — bran,  etc. — it  has  a  slightly  laxative 
effect  and  is,  therefore,  preferred  by  people  who 
are  predisposed  to  constipation. 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  107 

The  quality  of  bread  depends  partly  upon  that 
of  the  flour,  and  partly  upon  the  method  by  which 
it  is  made.  Bread  made  from  the  cheaper  qualities 
of  flour  is  often  darker  in  colour,  and  alum,  copper 
salts  and  other  substances  are  sometimes  introduced 
to  whiten  it.  All  these  compounds  are,  however, 
more  or  less  deleterious  to  health,  and  their  use  is 
illegal.  If  excessive  quantities  of  yeast  are  em- 
ployed, or  if  its  action  be  unduly  prolonged,  the 
bread  acquires  a  sour  taste  from  the  lactic  acid 
which  is  formed.  Such  bread  is  rightly  regarded 
as  of  inferior  quality  as  the  taste  is  disagreeable. 
It  is  not,  however,  at  all  injurious,  nor  is  it  neces- 
sarily less  nourishing. 

The  average  price  of  bread  is  about  l^d.  per  lb., 
but  fancy  loaves  and  those  of  finer  quality  are  more 
expensive. 

Unleavened  bread,  and  that  made  from  other 
cereals,  e.g.  barley,  rye,  maize,  etc.,  necessarily 
differ  to  some  extent  both  in  composition  and 
properties. 

Macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli  and  other  similar 
products  are  made  from  harder  varieties  of  wheat 
which  are  not  suitable  for  making  bread  owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  gluten  they  contain.  The 
flour,  which  is  prepared  by  a  peculiar  process,  is 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  water,  moulded  in  the  desired 
form,  and  dried  by  heat.  For  semolina,  the  paste 
is  not  moulded  but  simply  dried  hard  and  ground 
to  a  coarse  meal.  Shredded  wheat  has  practically 
the  same  composition  as  whole  meal,  but  owing 
to  its  peculiar  mechanical  condition,  it  is  supposed 
to  be  more  readily  digestible. 

In  the  milling  of  barley,  the  product  which 
remains  after  removal  of  the  bran,  is  called  pot 


108  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

barley ;  by  further  treatment  this  is  converted 
into  pearl  barley.  The  latter  costs  about  2d.  per 
lb.  or  7  lb.  for  Is.  ;   pot  barley  is  rather  cheaper. 

Rice  is  not  grown  in  this  country — ^it  requires 
a  moist,  warm  climate — but  is  imported  in  large 
quantities.  In  appearance,  the  grain  bears  a  certain 
resemblance  to  wheat  and  barley.  Compared  with 
these  in  point  of  composition,  rice  contains  less  pro- 
tein and  fat.  In  the  process  of  removing  the  bran 
from  the  exterior,  some  of  the  grains  become  bruised 
and  broken  ;  these  are  separated  and  sold  as  ground 
rice  at  l\d.  per  lb.  The  whole  grains,  polished, 
are  sold  at  2d.  per  lb.  Large  grained  varieties, 
used  for  curry,  and  certain  special  brands  cost  from 
2\d.  to  4:d.  per  lb. 

The  many  different  varieties  of  oats  may  be 
broadly  divided  into  two  classes,  viz.  (1)  the  small 
and  black  varieties  with  thick  husk  and  skin,  used 
chiefly  for  feeding  horses,  and  (2)  the  larger  white 
varieties  from  which  oatmeal  is  prepared.  The  com- 
position of  the  oat  grain  differs  markedly  from  that 
of  the  cereals  previously  mentioned.  Oats  contain 
less  starch  and  much  larger  proportions  of  fat  and 
fibre.  The  fat  is  of  a  peculiar  quality  ;  it  contains 
a  certain  amount  of  free  fatty  acid  (p.  30)  which 
gives  the  grain  its  peculiar  piquant  flavour.  Very 
little  but  the  husk  and  skin  is  removed  in  milling, 
practically  the  whole  of  the  grain  being  ground 
into  meal.  Oatmeal  is  sold  in  three  grades  known 
as  fine,  medium  and  coarse.  These  terms  refer 
merely  to  the  fineness  of  grinding  and  not  to  the 
quality.  The  superior  quality  of  Scotch  oat- 
meal is  commonly  attributed  to  the  character  of 
the  grain  grown  in  that  country  ;  probably,  how- 
ever, it  is  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the  skill  of  the 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  109 

Scotch  millers.  English  oatmeal  often  has  a  peculiar 
bitter  taste,  which  is  very  disagreeable,  and  which 
may  be  due  to  over  heating.  Crushed  and  rolled 
oats  have  practically  the  same  composition  and 
properties  as  oatmeal. 

Maize  is  not  largely  employed  as  such,  in  this 
country,  but  a  number  of  products  derived  from 
it  are  in  common  use.  Of  these,  perhaps  the  most 
important  are  hominy  and  corn-flour.  In  making 
these  products,  the  cereal  is  subjected  to  treatment 
with  alkalis  which  extract  a  considerable  part  of 
the  protein  and  fat,  and  leaves  sometimes  nearly 
pure  starch.  In  England  cornflour  is  also  made 
from  rice,^  but  there  is  not  much  difference  in 
the  composition.  Hominy  costs  about  2d.  per  lb. 
and  cornflour,  from  4cZ.  to  Gd.  per  lb. 

Sago,  tapioca  and  arrowroot  consist  of  practically 
pure  starch  of  which  they  contain  about  85  per  cent., 
the  remainder  being  moisture  and  a  trace  of  mineral 
matter. 

Arrowroot  is  obtained  from  the  tuberous  roots 
of  certain  herbaceous  plants  (Maranta).  The  tubers 
are  pulped  and  worked  with  water  on  a  sieve  through 
which  the  starch  granules  escape,  and  are  thus 
separated  from  the  fibre  with  which  they  are  associ- 
ated in  the  plant.  The  starch  is  then  collected, 
purified  and  dried  in  the  sun.  So  prepared,  the 
arrowroot  imported  from  Bermuda  commands  the 
very  high  price  of  35.  3c?.  per  lb.,  though  it  is  prac- 
tically indistinguishable  from  that  imported  from 
St.  Vincent,  which  is  sold  here  at  4:d.  per  lb. 

Tapioca  also  is  obtained  from  tuberous  roots, 
but  the  plants  belong  to  a  different  order.  The 
starch  is  contained  in  the  juice  expressed  from  the 

^  Bell,  Chemistry  of  Food, 


110  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

pulped  tuber  ;  when  washed  with  water  and  dried, 
it  is  known  as  cassava  starch,  or  Brazilian  arrowroot. 
This  product  is  partially  dried  and  exposed  to  heat, 
which  causes  the  starch  granules  to  burst  and  cohere 
in  irregular  masses  ;  this  forms  the  tapioca  of 
commerce  which  is  sold  at  3d.  to  3|dl.  per  lb. 

Sago  is  obtained  from  still  another  kind  of  plant 
known  as  the  sago  palm,  which  often  attains  a 
height  of  over  30  ft.  The  starchy  matter  is  found, 
not  in  the  root,  but  in  the  stem.  The  tree  is  cut 
down  and  the  pith  is  scooped  out ;  the  starch  is 
then  separated  from  fibrous  impurities  by  working 
with  water  on  a  sieve  as  in  the  case  of  arrowroot. 
When  it  is  purified  and  dried,  it  is  called  sago  flour. 
This  is  granulated  by  mixing  to  a  paste  with  water 
and  heating  till  the  starch  grains  burst  and  cohere 
in  granules  on  drying.  Genuine  sago  is  sold  at  4:d. 
and  5d.  per  lb.  Special  qualities  consisting  of 
larger  granules  are  more  expensive.  It  is  of  a 
brownish  colour,  and  has  a  peculiar  earthy  taste. 
Pearl  tapioca  is  frequently  sold  under  the  name  of 
white  sago.  This  practice  is  not  regarded  as  fraudu- 
lent, although  tapioca  is  a  cheaper  product. 

The  term  legume  is  used  in  different  senses.  Here, 
it  refers  to  the  seeds  of  certain  leguminous  plants, 
of  which  beans,  peas  and  lentils  are  the  most  im- 
portant. They  are  also  known  as  pulse  grains. 
As  compared  with  the  cereal  grains,  these  seeds  are 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  a  smaller 
proportion  of  starch.  The  three  mentioned  above 
are  much  alike  in  composition.  Beans  contain  a 
slightly  larger  proportion  of  fat,  and  peas  contain 
more  woody  fibre  than  lentils.  This  fact  regarding 
peas  lends  colour  to  the  popular  notion  that  they 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  1 1 1 

are  apt  to  produce  flatulence,  and  lentils  are  often 
preferred  to  peas  on  this  account.  Beans  and 
peas  are  too  well  known  to  need  any  description. 
Lentils  are,  perhaps,  less  familiar.  They  are  not 
grown  in  this  country  as  the  climate  is  unsuitable. 
The  plant  of  which  they  are  the  seed  somewhat 
resembles  vetches  in  appearance.  The  ordinary 
varieties  of  peas,  beans  and  lentils  cost  about  2d. 
per  lb.,  but  some  special  qualities  are  sold  at  4:d. 
or  4^d.  per  lb. 

The  various  kinds  of  nuts  in  common  use  are 
all  well  known,  and  need  no  description.  They 
are  valuable  foods,  and  are  much  esteemed  by 
vegetarians,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  large  propor- 
tion of  oil  they  contain,  but  they  are  also  fairly  rich 
in  protein.  The  composition  is  given  in  the  tables 
in  the  appendix.  They  are  considered  somewhat 
indigestible,  but  it  is  said  no  difficulty  is  experienced 
when  they  are  finely  ground.  In  any  case  they 
should  be  thoroughly  masticated.  The  following 
are  the  average  prices  of  the  commoner  sorts  : — 


per  lb. 

per  lb. 

Almonds     . 

.      .      .      Qd, 

Walnuts,   .      .      .      .     6d. 

Filberts.      . 

.      .      .      6d. 

,,         kernels  .      .      Is. 

Peanuts 

.      .      Sd. 

Brazil  nuts     .      .      .      6d. 

Barcelonas . 

.      .      .      4d. 

Cocoanuts       .     each     3d. 

Chestnuts   . 

.      .      3d. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  natural  sugar, 
and  many  others  can  be  prepared  by  artificial 
means.  They  are  divided,  by  chemists,  into  groups. 
The  various  kinds  of  sugar  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses all  belong  to  the  cane  sugar  group,  and  were 
formerly  obtained  exclusively  from  sugar  cane. 
Large  quantities  are  now  obtained  from  beet.  It 
is  estimated  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  sugar 


112  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

now  on  the  market  comes  from  this  source.  Beet 
sugar  is  practically  identical  with  that  derived  from 
sugar  cane,  and  as  a  rule  no  distinction  is  made 
commercially. 

The  processes  by  which  the  sugar  is  extracted 
from  the  two  plants,  of  necessity  differ  in  detail, 
but  in  general  outlines  they  are  very  similar.  In 
both  cases,  the  material  is  reduced  to  pulp,  and 
the  sugar  is  expressed  in  the  juice  or  washed  out 
with  water.  The  grosser  impurities  are  then 
removed,  and  the  water  evaporated  until  the  sugar 
begins  to  crystallize.  The  product  so  obtained  is 
called  raw  sugar,  and  the  liquor  which  remains  is 
called  molasses  or  treacle. 

Kaw  sugar  from  Demerara  and  Trinidad  is  some- 
times used  without  further  refining.  It  is  a  soft, 
moist,  easily  soluble  product,  sometimes  called 
brown  sugar.  It  contains  about  90  per  cent,  of 
pure  cane  sugar,  5  per  cent,  sugar  of  another  kind, 
called  invert  sugar,  and  5  per  cent,  of  moisture. 
It  is  sold  at  2ld.  per  lb.  Certain  inferior  products 
of  the  refineries  are  sometimes  dyed  and  sold 
as  best  Demerara.  These  consist  of  very  small 
crystals,  hold  a  large  proportion  of  water,  and 
have  less  sweetening  power  than  raw  sugar.  ^ 

White  sugar  is  prepared  from  the  raw  product  by 
a  very  elaborate  process  of  refining.  The  substance 
is  dissolved  in  water,  decolourized,  purified  and 
crystallized  in  vacuum  pans.  The  vacuum  pan 
is  a  device  to  make  water  boil  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture, and  it  is  used  to  prevent  the  sugar  from  being 
converted  into  an  uncrystallizable  form.  It  is 
impossible,  however,  entirely  to  prevent  this  change, 

1  Bell,  Chemistry  of  Food. 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  113 

but  the  sugar  which  undergoes  it  is  recovered  and 
sold  as  golden  syrup. 

The  common  granulated  sugar  produced  by  this 
process  is  almost  absolutely  pure  and  free  from 
moisture  ;  it  is  sold  at  2d.  per  lb.  Loaf  sugar  is 
practically  the  same  product  crystallized  in  moulds, 
but  as  some  manipulation  is  involved,  the  price  is 
higher,  viz.,  2\d.  to  3c?.  per  lb. 

Treacle  and  syrup  are  sometimes  confused.  The 
former  term  generally  refers  to  the  molasses  obtained 
in  the  crystallization  of  raw  sugar,  but  is  occasionally 
applied  to  the  syrup  or  drip  obtained  in  refining. 
The  viscous,  black  treacle  or  molasses,  contains  about 
60  per  cent,  sugar,  of  which  two- thirds  is  cane 
sugar,  10  per  cent,  protein  and  30  per  cent,  water. 
It  is  sold  at  2\d.  to  Zd.  per  lb.  The  molasses 
obtained  in  crystallizing  crude  beet  sugar,  is  unfit 
for  use  as  food.  Golden  syrup  is  lighter  in  colour 
than  treacle,  but  is  very  similar  in  composition. 

Vegetable  fats  and  oils  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  pure  state,  i.e.  after  extraction  from 
the  seeds,  nuts  or  other  parts  of  the  plants  which 
contain  them. 

Olive  oil  is  derived  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive 
trees,  of  which  a  number  of  different  varieties  are 
cultivated  in  the  South  of  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and 
elsewhere.  The  oil  is  obtained  both  from  the 
fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  and  also  from  the  stones. 
The  former  is  much  superior  and  is  known  as  the 
"  finest  virgin  oil  (sublime).''  The  latter  has  a 
slightly  rancid  flavour,  and  is  often  adulterated 
with  cotton-seed,  sesame  and  other  cheaper  oils. 
A  low  grade,  mixed  oil,  is  obtained  by  crushing  the 
whole  fruit  and  kernels  together.  Even  the  finest 
qualities  rapidly  go  rancid  when  exposed  to  heat 


114  ECONOMY   OF  FOOD 

and  light,  e.g.  in  shop  windows.  When  pure,  it 
should  be  of  a  light  yellow  colour,  thin  and  almost 
tasteless.  The  French  and  Italian  products  are 
sold  in  this  country  at  from  Is.  to  Is.  3d.  per  pint, 
but  the  Spanish  is  dearer,  about  25.  per  bottle. 

Cotton-seed  oil  and  oil  of  sesame  closely  resemble 
olive  oil ;  they  are  used  not  only  to  adulterate  it, 
but  are  often  substituted  entirely  for  it,  both 
avowedly  and  fraudulently.  The  so-called  salad 
oil  generally  consists  of  pure  cotton-seed  oil.  It  is 
sold  at  10^.  to  Is.  per  pint.^ 

Almond  oil,  properly  so  called,  is  obtained  by 
pressure,  both  from  sweet  and  from  bitter  almonds, 
which  contain  about  50  per  cent,  of  bland  oil.  It 
is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  volatile  product 
known  as  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  The  latter  is  of 
the  nature  of  an  essence  and  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation after  the  fat  has  been  expressed  (p.  134). 
Pure  almond  oil  is  of  a  light  yellow  colour,  thin  and 
almost  tasteless.  It  is  one  of  the  most  expensive 
vegetable  oils,  being  sold  at  from  2^.  to  25.  Qd.  per 
pint,  and  is,  therefore,  frequently  adulterated 
with  cheaper  oils. 

What  is  called  peachnut  kernel  oil,  but  is  in 
reality  largely  made  from  the  stones  of  apricots, 
plums  and  other  fruits,  resembles  almond  oil.  It 
is  considerably  cheaper  and  may  be  used  in  place 
of  the  latter ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  used  to  adul- 
terate almond  oil  and  is  sometimes  fraudulently 
substituted  for  it. 

Araohis  or  peanut  oil,  which  is  also  extensively 

used,  has  a  somewhat  disagreeable  flavour  similar 

to  that  of  the  nuts  themselves,  and  which  becomes 

more  pronounced  on  standing  some  time.     Peanut 

^  A  little  over  1  lb,  weight. 


CEREALS,  FARINACEOUS  PRODUCTS,  ETC.  115 

oil  is  fairly  cheap,  about  9d.  to  lOd.  per  pint,  and 
enters  into  the  composition  of  most  of  the  so-called 
vegetable  margarines  or  butter  substitutes.  The 
fundamental  substance  of  the  latter,  however,  is 
cocoanut  oil.  These  vegetable  margarines  are 
sold  at  prices  ranging  from  Sd.  to  Is.  per  lb.       ^r' 

The  vegetable  oils,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last  mentioned  products,  consist  of  pure  fat  and 
are  all  of  equal  nutritive  value.  The  butter^sub- 
stitutes  contain  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  moisture. 


CHAPTER    X 
FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 

....  entreat  thy  Lord  that  he  give  us  what  the  earth 
produceth,  beets,  cucumbers,  garUck,  lentils  and  onions 
.    ...  Eat  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 

The  Alcoran. 

Fresh  vegetables  generally  consist  of  edible  roots, 
stems  and  leaves,  the  composition  of  which  is  very- 
variable.  They  always  contain  a  large  amount  of 
water. 

The  dry  or  solid  matter  rarely  exceeds  10  or  12  per 
cent,  of  the  whole.  It  is  composed  mainly  of  carbo- 
hydrates. Either  starch  or  sugar  generally 
predominates,  but  a  considerable  amount  of  cellulose 
is  always  present.  The  last  becomes  fibrous  and 
more  or  less  indigestible  as  the  plants  get  older, 
and  in  that  condition,  it  is  apt  to  produce  flatu- 
lence and  disagree  with  people  of  weak  digestion. 
Fats  are  often  absent,  or  occur  only  in  negligible 
quantities. 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  generally  low,  and,  of  the 
total  nitrogenous  matter,  a  variable  but  usually 
considerable  part  is  in  the  form  of  amides  which 
have  very  inferior,  if  any,  nutritive  properties 
(p.  37).  The  true  proteids  also  are  less  easily  and 
less  completely  digestible  than  those  of  seeds. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  nutritive  value 
u« 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


117 


of  fresh  vegetables  is  small  compared  with  that 
of  the  more  concentrated  foods  previously  mentioned. 
On  the  other  hand  they  are  relatively  very  cheap, 
i.e.  when  considered  weight  for  weight.  Many  of 
them  are  more  valuable  for  their  hygienic  properties 
than  for  any  directly  nutritive  effects. 

As  a  rule,  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  plants 
exhibit  a  general  similarity  of  composition,  and 
they  may  be  arranged  in  groups  accordingly  as 
follows — 


Boots. 
Turnips. 
Carrots. 
Beetroot. 
Parsnips. 
Radishes. 


Tubers. 
Potatoes. 
Artichokes. 

Leafbulhs. 

Onions. 

Leeks. 


Stems 

Seeds  and 

and  Leaves. 

Fruits. 

Cabbages. 

Peas. 

Spinach. 

Beans. 

Lettuces. 

Tomatoes. 

Celery. 

Marrows. 

Cauliflower. 

Cucumbers. 

Tubers  are  often  classed  as  roots,  but  they  are, 
in  reality,  underground  stems,  and  their  nutritive 
and  other  properties  are  very  different  from  those 
of  turnips,  etc.  Potatoes  are  the  most  important. 
They  contain  less  water  and  more  nutrient  matter 
than  any  of  the  other  vegetables  mentioned.  The 
carbohydrates  consist  mainly  of  starch,  and  the 
proportion  of  fibre  is  small.  Potatoes  form  the 
staple  diet  of  large  numbers  of  people,  and  having 
regard  to  their  composition,  price,  etc.,  they  rank 
next  to  bread  itself  in  this  respect.  Artichokes 
have  a  higher  nutritive  ratio  than  potatoes  and  are 
not  much  inferior  in  other  respects. 

Roots  are  more  watery.  They  contain  only  a 
small  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  of  this, 
more  than  half  is  sometimes  present  in  the  form 
of  amides.     The  carbohydrates,  which  consist  mainly 


118  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

of  sugar,  are  the  most  important  nutrients  of  these 
vegetables. 

Cabbages  and  other  vegetables  of  that  class  are 
even  more  watery  than  the  roots.  From  a  fifth 
to  a  third  of  the  total  carbohydrates  generally  con- 
sists of  fibre  of  a  rather  indigestible  character, 
and  except  when  the  plants  are  very  young  and 
tender,  these  vegetables  do  not  agree  with  many 
people.  Cauliflowers  have  been  put  in  the  same 
group,  but  they  are  very  different  in  character. 
The  edible  substance  consists  mainly  of  the  unde- 
veloped flower  buds  ;  consequently,  the  nutritive 
ratio  is  higher,  and  the  proportion  of  fibre  is  smaller 
than  in  cabbages. 

In  ordinary  language,  the  term  fruit  is  appHed 
only  to  vegetable  products  that  are  suitable  for 
dessert,  and  peas,  marrows,  cucumbers  etc.,  are 
regarded  as  fruits  only  in  the  botanical  sense 
that  they  are  the  part  of  the  plant  that  contains 
the  seed. 

In  the  case  of  peas  and  beans,  it  is  the  pod  that 
is  the  fruit,  and  though  this  is  the  edible  part  of 
French  beans,  etc.,  it  is  the  seed  alone  of  green  peas 
that  is  eaten.  The  latter  are,  therefore,  simply 
undried  legumes  and,  apart  from  the  water  they 
contain,  closely  resemble  those  previously  described. 
They  have  a  high  nutritive  ratio. 

Fresh  fruits  are  relatively  very  expensive  and, 
as  a  rule,  they  are  consumed  only  in  comparatively 
small  quantities.  They  are  valued  more  on  account 
of  their  pleasant  flavours  and  hygienic  properties 
than  for  the  nourishment  they  contain.  Protein 
generally  forms  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  edible 
matter ;  and  fats  about  half  that  amount.  Some 
ol  them,  however,  contain  much  smaller  amounts 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  119 

of  the  former,  and  some  are  practically  destitute  of 
the  latter  constituent.  Carbohydrates  occur  in 
more  variable  but,  usually,  more  considerable  quan- 
tities. They  are,  in  all  cases,  the  most  important 
nutrient  in  these  products,  and  generally  consist 
largely  of  sugar. 

In  the  unripe  condition,  most  fruits  are  hard, 
sour  and  unpalatable ;  but  as  they  approach 
maturity,  the  cellulose  becomes  converted  into 
the  softer  pectic  compounds,  the  proportion  of 
sugar  increases,  and  the  acids  are  partly  changed 
into  ethereal  substances  which  impart  the  charac- 
teristic aroma  to  the  fruit.  The  pectic  compounds 
are  soluble  in  hot  water  but  insoluble  in  cold,  and 
solutions,  therefore,  soHdify  in  the  form  of  jellies 
on  cooling.  By  the  action  of  ferments  which  are 
present  in  the  fruit,  and  also  by  prolonged  boiling 
with  water,  the  pectic  compounds  are  changed 
into  substances  which  are  soluble  in  cold  water 
and  which  do  not,  therefore,  form  jeUies.  This  is 
what  occurs  when  fruit  becomes  over  ripe.  In 
the  process  of  making  jam,  therefore,  it  is  advisable 
to  select  fruit  that  is  barely  ripe.  Boiling  completes 
the  process  by  which  pectic  compounds  are  formed, 
destroys  the  ferments  and  evaporates  off  some  of 
the  water  so  that  the  product  sets  well  on  cooling. 
But  if  the  fruit  be  too  ripe  to  start  with,  or  if  the 
boiling  be  unduly  prolonged,  the  pectic  compounds 
are  destroyed,  and  the  jam  will  not  set. 

Fruits  are  preserved  by  drying,  which  either 
destroys  the  ferments  or  renders  them  inoperative. 
By  abstraction  of  water,  the  proportions  of  all 
the  nutrients  are  increased.  Some  of  the  dried 
fruits  are  highly  concentrated  foods,  and  have  a 
fairly  high  nutritive  ratio.     Carbohydrates  always 


120  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

predominate,  and,  in  some  cases,  amount  to  about 
75  per  cent.  ;  protein  forms  from  15  to  20  per  cent, 
and  fat  from  2  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  edible  matter. 
Dried  fruits  are  used  in  puddings  and  in  various 
other  ways.  If  steeped  for  a  few  hours  before 
using,  they  take  up  a  considerable  amount  of  water 
and  are  much  improved  in  all  respects.  They  are 
not  so  much  esteemed  for  hygienic  purposes  as 
fresh  fruits,  but  are  an  excellent  substitute  when 
the  latter  are  unobtainable. 

Honey  may  be  regarded  as  a  vegetable  rather 
than  an  animal  product  inasmuch  as  it  is  collected 
rather  than  produced  by  bees.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  saccharine  substances  undergo 
modification  in  the  honey  bags  of  the  bees.  These 
creatures  certainly  have  the  power  of  transform- 
ing sugar  into  wax.  Honey  consists  mainly  of  a 
mixture  of  several  different  kinds  of  sugars,  with 
smaller  quantities  of  wax,  gum,  poUen,  formic  acid 
and  other  organic  substances. 

The  flavour  and  odour  of  the  honey  depend 
largely  upon  the  kind  of  flowers  from  which  it  has 
been  collected.  Bees  fed  on  sugar  or  glucose 
produce  large  quantities  of  honey  of  very  inferior 
quality.  Glucose  is  used  to  adiflterate  honey  and 
is  sometimes  substituted  for  it,  either  fraudulently, 
or  avowedly  under  the  name  of  artificial  honey. 
Genuine  honey  should  contain  not  more  than  25 
per  cent,  of  water. 


CHAPTER   XI 

PREPARED  FOODS:    PACKET  GOODS, 

PATENT  AND  PROPRIETARY 

ARTICLES 

If  then  plain  bread  and  milk  will  do  the  feat. 
The  pleasure  lies  in  you  and  not  the  meat. 

Pope   {''Satires''). 

Almost  every  variety  of  cereal,  pulse  and  farina- 
ceous product  is  put  up  in  packets  and  sold  by 
various  firms,  either  under  their  own  or  some 
registered  fancy  name.  These  goods  are  usually 
prepared  from  selected  materials  of  fine  quality. 
Many  of  them  are  mixed  products  derived  from 
several  sources,  and  they  are  often  subjected  to 
special  processes  of  milling.  Partly  on  this  account, 
but  perhaps  more  largely  because  the  cost  of  the 
packets,  packing  and  advertising  must  be  borne 
by  the  consumer,  packet  goods  are  usually  more 
expensive  than  similar  products  sold  from  bulk. 
The  distinction  between  packet  goods  and  patent 
and  proprietary  articles  is  rather  a  fine  one.  The 
latter  term  is  generally  understood  to  refer  more 
particularly  to  those  foods  which  are,  or  are  supposed 
to  be,  specially  adapted  to  the  requirements  of 
infants  and  invalids,  as  regards  their  composition 
and  digestibiUty.  They  are  very  numerous,  diverse 
in  character,  and  can  only  be  briefly  noticed  here. 
[    Patent    and    proprietary    articles    are    relatively 

121 


122  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

very  expensive.  In  some  cases,  the  prices  are  ridicu- 
lously out  of  proportion  to  the  cost  of  production  ; 
but  in  others,  the  prices  cannot  be  considered 
excessive  when  the  methods  of  preparation  and 
other  circumstances  are  taken  into  account.  The 
majority  of  those  which  have  an  established  repu- 
tation are  more  or  less  suitable  for  their  ostensible 
purposes. 

Apart  from  meat  preparations — which  are  suitable 
only  for  adults — infants'  and  invalids'  foods  are 
mostly  derived  from  cereals,  or  from  milk,  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two.  They  may  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  product  and  the  treatment 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected. 

In  cereal  preparations,  the  grains  are  reduced  to 
very  fine  flour,  and  all  husks  and  bran  are  removed 
by  repeated  grinding  and  sifting.  Some  of  them 
are  disintegrated  with  water,  cooked,  dried,  baked, 
and  again  ground.  Others  are  merely  well  baked 
in  the  dry  state.  Baking  destroys  bacteria  and 
fungi  with  which  the  grains  are  often  infected,  and 
converts  some  of  the  starch  into  dextrine.  The 
last  mentioned  substance  is  soluble  in  water,  and, 
therefore,  easily  assimilated.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  starch,  however,  always  remains  unchanged. 
Several  well-known  foods  belong  to  this  tjrpe.  Wheat 
is  the  cereal  principally  employed,  but  some  contain 
an  admixture  of  barley.  Cane  sugar,  milk  sugar, 
and  dextrine  are  sometimes  added  to  increase 
the  amount  of  soluble  carbohydrates.  In  certain 
cases,  pulse  flour  and  finely  ground  nuts  are  mixed 
with  the  cereals  to  increase  the  proportions  of  pro- 
tein and  fat. 

Infants  under  the  age  of  six  months  are  unable 
to   assimilate   starch,   and   foods   which   contain  a 


PATENT  FOODS  123 

large  proportion  of  that  ingredient  are,  therefore, 
unsuitable  for  them.  Small  quantities  of  starch 
are  probably  harmless,  provided  the  infant  is  not 
starved  for  lack  of  other  nourishment,  but  in  large 
amounts  it  may  be  positively  injurious. 

For  this  reason,  a  large  number  of  the  cereal 
foods  intended  for  infants  are  prepared  with  malt, 
which  promotes  the  digestion  of  starch. 

Malt  may  be  described  simply  as  sprouted  grain. 
It  is  usually  made  from  barley,  but  other  cereals 
may  be  used.  To  prepare  it,  the  grain  is  soaked 
in  water,  and  then  piled  in  heaps  till  the  seeds 
germinate,  i.e.  begin  to  grow.  It  is  then  dried, 
and  the  growths  are  removed.  Malt,  so  prepared, 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  diastase — a,  fer- 
ment closely  resembling  that  of  saliva — ^which  in 
the  presence  of  warm  water  converts  starch  into 
maltose  and  other  soluble  carbohydrates.  The 
diastatic  ferment  is  most  active  at  temperatures 
of  about  60°  C.  ;  its  properties  are  permanently 
destroyed  by  boiling  water. 

The  malted  or  predigested  cereal  foods  contain 
active  diastase  mixed  with  tiie  cereal  flour,  and 
the  chemical  change  which  the  starch  undergoes 
takes  place  when  the  food  is  in  course  of  preparation 
for  use.  It  is  highly  important,  therefore,  that 
the  directions  for  the  preparation  of  these  foods 
should  be  followed  exactly.  In  some  malted  foods, 
practically  the  whole  of  the  starch  is  converted  ; 
in  others,  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  remains 
unchanged.  The  latter  are  intended  chiefly  for 
older  children. 

Malt  extracts  are  prepared  by  grinding  the  malt 
to  a  coarse  meal,  and  soaking  in  warm  water. 
The  solutions  so  obtained  are  usually  concentrated 


124  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

to  a  thick  syrup  containing  about  25  per  cent,  of 
water  ;  in  some  cases  they  are  desiccated.  Besides 
the  soluble  carbohydrates  of  which  they  are  chiefly 
composed,  they  contain  a  small  amount  of  protein, 
and  have,  therefore,  a  certain  nutritive  value  in 
themselves.  They  are  chiefly  used,  however,  in 
small  quantities,  to  promote  the  digestion  of  starch 
in  other  foods  taken  at  the  same  time. 

By  removal  of  the  starch  from  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  the  protein  can  be  obtained  in  a  fairly  pure 
state.  A  product  of  this  kind,  sold  under  the 
name  of  gluten  flour,  is  used  for  making  "  gluten 
bread ''  for  diabetics.  A  cheaper  substance  of 
the  same  kind,  known  as  legumin  or  vegetable 
casein,  is  prepared  from  peas  and  beans.  Other 
commercial  varieties  of  vegetable  protein  are 
obtained  from  rape  and  other  seeds,  and  are  sold 
under  various  names. 

The  processes  by  which  special  milk  foods  are 
prepared  are  of  two  kinds,  viz.  those  which  affect 
the  digestibility  of  the  milk,  and  those  which 
affect  its  composition. 

Peptonized  or  predigested  milk  can  be  obtained 
commercially.  There  are  many  different  brands. 
It  is  easily  prepared  at  home  by  treating  fresh  milk 
with  one  of  the  peptonizing  powders,  of  which 
several  kinds  are  sold  for  the  purpose. 

The  composition  of  milk  may  be  modified  (1) 
by  altering  the  relative  proportions  of  casein, 
albumen,  fat  and  carbohydrates,  e.g.  the  so-called 
"  humanized  milk  "  previously  referred  to  (p.  96), 
and  similar  products  of  which  there  are  many 
varieties  on  the  market ;  (2)  by  concentration, 
e.g.  condensed  and  desiccated  milks ;  (3)  by  a 
combination  of  both  methods. 


PATENT  FOODS  125 

Condensed  milk  is  prepared  by  evaporating  off 
a  portion  of  the  water.  The  process  is  carried  out 
at  a  low  temperature,  under  diminished  pressure, 
in  order  to  avoid  coagulating  the  albumen  and 
spoiling  the  taste  of  the  milk. 

The  composition  of  the  product  depends  upon 
the  composition  of  the  sample  from  which  it  is 
prepared,  and  upon  the  degree  of  concentration. 
Commonly,  fresh  whole  milk  is  used,  and  is  reduced 
to  about  half,  or  a  third,  of  its  original  volume. 
The  product  therefore  contains  two  or  three  times 
as  much  of  all  the  nutrients  as  the  original.  A 
quantity  of  sugar  is  sometimes  added.  This 
product,  called  sweetened  condensed  milk,  is  sold 
at  5d.  per  tin  ;  the  unsweetened  variety  is  sold 
at  4:d. 

Condensed  skim  milk  can  also  be  obtained  ;  it 
is,  of  course,  much  cheaper.  Sometimes  a  portion 
of  the  cream  is  fraudulently  removed,  but  most  of 
the  well-known  brands  are  fairly  reliable  in  this 
respect. 

Desiccated  milk  may  be  regarded  simply  as 
condensed  milk  from  which  practically  the  whole 
of  the  water  has  been  expelled.  It  may  be  made 
from  whole,  skim,  or  partially  defatted  milk.  Cow 
and  Gates  brand  is  sold  in  packets  (equal  to  3  pints 
of  whole  milk)  at  8d.  "  Glaxo  "  and  "  lacvitum  "  are 
similar  products  ;  1  lb.  of  the  latter  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  about  6  pints  of  whole  milk  and  costs 
about  l<s.  "Lacumen"  is  a  desiccated  skim  milk. 
"Casumen"  and  "biogene"  are  similar  but  contain 
a  certain  amount  of  fat. 

To  save  expense,  skim-milk  products  are  gener 
ally    prepared    by    precipitation    of    the    casein,    a 
process  which  facilitates  escape  of  the  sugar.    The 


126  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

casein  may  be  rendered  soluble  by  treatment  with 
alkalis,  as  in  "nutrose,"  "plasmon,"  etc.,  or  by  the 
action  of  ammonia,  as  in  the  so-called  "eucasein." 
In  "  sanose,"  about  a  fifth  of  the  protein  consists  of 
albumoses  derived  from  white  of  egg,  the  remainder 
being  milk  casein.  "  Santogen "  has  about  5  per 
cent,  of  glycero-phosphate  associated  with  the 
casein  ;  when  mixed  with  cold  water,  it  forms  a 
milk-like  emulsion. 

These  preparations  are  recommended  for  diabetic 
and  rheumatic  invalids,  on  the  ground  that  they 
are  free  from  carbohydrates  and  purin  bodies. 
For  persons  in  health,  they  should  be  used  along 
with  starchy  and  fatty  substances,  but  fresh  foods 
are  better  if  they  can  be  obtained. 

Most  of  the  purely  cereal  foods,  whether  malted 
or  otherwise,  are  designed  to  be  used  along  with 
fresh  milk.  This  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind 
when  their  composition  is  compared  with  that  of 
the  mixed  foods,  i.e.  those  which  contain  the  con- 
stituents of  milk  mixed  with  cereal  flours.  Mixed 
foods  are  usually  malted  to  promote  digestion  of 
the  starch,  and  in  many,  the  protein  is  peptonized 
as  well. 

Benger's  food  differs  in  some  respects  from  those 
previously  described.  It  is  purely  a  cereal  pre- 
paration, intended  to  be  used  with  milk  ;  but  it  is 
impregnated  with  both  diastatic  and  tryptic  fer- 
ments ;  the  former  acts  on  the  starch  of  the  cereal 
and  the  latter  peptonizes  the  casein  of  the  milk 
which  is  added  in  the  course  of  preparation  for  use. 

The  composition  of  some  of  the  well-known 
brands  is  given  in  appendix  C.  (p.  174).  The  figures 
are  in  most  cases  those  supplied  by  the  makers. 
It  is  obvious,  however,  that  chemical  analysis,  by 


PATENT  FOODS  127 

itself,  affords  but  little  information  regarding  the 
character  of  these  foods. 

Meat  preparations  are  of  several  different  kinds. 
They  may  be  classified  as  Extracts,  Peptones, 
dried  meat  powders,  and  fresh  meat  pastes. 

A  distinction  is  commonly  drawn  between  hot 
and  cold  water  extracts  of  meat.  The  former  are 
known  as  meat  tea  or  essences,  and  the  latter  as 
meat  juice,  but  they  are  often  very  similar  in  com- 
position. The  most  important  constituent  of  both 
is  the  nitrogenous  extractives  or  meat  bases  as 
they  are  called.  The  nutritive  value  of  these  sub- 
stances is  doubtful  (p.  37),  but  they  are  more 
or  less  powerful  stimulants  and  are  useful  for 
certain  purposes. 

The  extracts,  if  made  with  cold  water,  contain 
also  a  certain  amount  of  soluble  albumen,  but  very 
little  gelatin.  If  hot  water  be  employed,  the 
soluble  albumen  is  coagulated,  but  the  proportion 
of  gelatin  is  greatly  increased. 

To  prepare  an  extract,  the  meat,  after  removal 
of  the  fat  and  unedible  matter,  is  chopped  very 
fine  and  covered  with  water,  to  which  a  little  salt 
is  added,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  three  or  four 
hours  ;  the  liquid  is  then  strained  off  with  pressure. 
This  preparation  cannot  be  kept  for  any  length  of 
time  as  it  decomposes  very  rapidly.  It  exhibits 
the  colour,  taste  and  odour  of  blood,  and  is  very 
disagreeable  to  sensitive  people.  A  commercial 
product  of  similar  nature  and  properties  is  obtained 
by  expressing  the  juice  from  the  meat  in  powerful 
hydraulic  presses.  The  fluid  so  obtained  is  then 
concentrated,  and  as  this  has  to  be  done  under 
diminished  pressure,  to  avoid  coagulating  the 
albumen,  these  products  are  very  expensive. 


128  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

To  prepare  meat  tea,  the  initial  procedure  is  the 
same  as  for  the  cold  water  extract,  but  the  liquid 
is  gradually  warmed  to  about  75°  C,  and  in  some 
cases  ultimately  to  boHing.  Commercial  products 
of  this  kind  are  always  concentrated,  and  a  certain 
amount  of  insoluble  protein  is  generally  added 
in  the  form  of  meat  fibre  which  greatly  increases 
their  nutritive  value.  They  are  prepared  for  use 
by  diluting  with  hot  water.  As  they  are  concen- 
trated by  boUing,  they  are  much  cheaper  than  the 
so-called  meat  juices,  and  can  be  kept  indefinitely 
without  preservatives,  but  they  decompose  rapidly 
when  once  the  bottles  are  opened.  They  are 
usually  of  a  brown  gravy  colour,  and  possess  the 
appetizing  smell  and  flavour  of  meat. 

The  so-called  peptones  are  simply  predigested 
meats,  intended  chiefly  for  invalids  suffering  from 
stomach  troubles.  Some  of  them  are  liquids  con- 
taining over  80  per  cent,  of  water,  and  others  are 
solids  containing  little  or  none.  The  degree  of 
peptonization  in  the  different  brands  is  equally 
variable,  and  they  contain  the  peptones  and 
extractives  in  very  different  proportions. 

Meat  powders  should  be  made  from  fresh  meat 
lightly  boiled,  and  then  dried  at  a  low  temperature 
untn  it  is  brittle  enough  to  be  ground  up  fine.  Like 
the  dried  milk  products,  they  are  chiefly  valuable 
for  convenience  of  transport,  but  they  are  more 
expensive  than  the  latter.  Some  of  them  are 
compressed  into  the  form  of  lozenges  or  tablets. 
Some  varieties  are  said  to  be  made  from  the  residues 
remaining  after  preparation  of  meat  extracts  or 
meat  juices. 

Meat  pastes  or  potted  meats  are  simply  finely 
shredded  cooked  meat,  and,  if  pure,  they  have  the 


PATENT  FOODS  129 

characteristics  of  the  meat  from  which  they  are 
prepared.  Very  often  two  or  more  kinds  of  meat 
are  mixed  together,  and  they  are  usually  highly 
salted  and  spiced.  In  some,  a  certain  amount  of 
fat  is  introduced,  either  in  clots  or  diffused.  Not 
infrequently  a  considerable  proportion  of  bread, 
or  other  starchy  matter,  is  added.  This  may 
improve  the  taste  ;  it  certainly  increases  the  bulk, 
and  ought,  therefore,  to  reduce  the  price. 

Gelatin  is  a  nitrogenous  substance  allied  to 
protein,  but  it  is  not  a  true  proteid  ;  it  lacks  the 
element  sulphur,  and  differs  in  other  respects  (p.  37). 
It  is  obtained  commercially  by  boiling  bones  and 
other  products.  It  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  but 
not  in  cold  ;  a  hot  solution,  therefore,  solidifies  or 
"  sets  ''  in  the  form  of  a  jelly  on  cooHng,  if  it  contain 
even  so  little  as  1  per  cent,  of  gelatin. 

Stock  or  soup  which  forms  a  jelly  on  cooling  is 
commonly  regarded  as  very  rich,  but  such  is  not 
necessarily  the  case.  If  made  by  gently  stewing 
meat  at  a  temperature  below  70°  C.  it  might  contain 
a  large  proportion  of  meat  bases,  but  not  enough 
gelatin  to  cause  it  to  solidify.  On  the  other  hand, 
stock  made  by  boiHng  bones  may  contain  enough 
gelatin  to  cause  it  to  sohdify  on  cooling,  and  but 
little  of  the  more  valuable  extractives. 

On  prolonged  boiling,  gelatin  undergoes  a  change 
and  loses  the  power  of  gelatinizing,  which  is  its 
most  important  property.  Gelatin  is  sold  in  thin 
plates  which  consist  of  practically  the  pure  substance 
plus  about  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  water.  The  price 
is  about  Is.  6d.  per  lb. 

Table  jeUies  are  made  by  dissolving  gelatin  in 
hot  water — about  1  oz.  of  gelatin  to  a  quart  of 
water — and  adding  various  colours  and  flavouring 


130  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

essences.  Such  jellies  can  be  obtained  commer- 
cially in  a  condensed  form,  i.e.  containing  a  smaller 
proportion  of  water.  They  are  prepared  for  use 
by  merely  dissolving  the  contents  of  the  packets 
in  a  stated  quantity  of  hot  water  and  allowing  the 
solution  to  cool. 

Of  the  various  brands  of  egg  and  custard  powders 
now  on  the  market,  some  are  undoubtedly  genuine, 
i.e.  they  are  merely  desiccated  eggs.  The  great 
majority,  however,  are  not  represented  as  such, 
but  as  egg  substitutes  ;  and  it  is  obvious  from  the 
prices  at  which  most  of  these  goods  are  sold,  that 
they  cannot  have  been  prepared  from  eggs.  As  a 
rule,  they  consist  mainly  of  starch,  mixed  with  a 
certain  amount  of  protein  derived  from  skim  milk, 
and  contain  httle  or  no  fat.  Some  of  them  are 
practically  destitute  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and 
are  merely  mixtures  of  starch  and  baking  powders 
in  various  proportions,  with  some  yellow  dye  or 
colouring  matter. 

The  composition  of  the  commoner  varieties  of 
all  these  products  is  given  in  the  appendix  (p.  177). 


CHAPTER   XII 

SPICES,  CONDIMENTS  AND  MISCEL- 
LANEOUS ARTICLES 

I    must    have    saffron   to    colour    the   warden 
pies  ;     mace  ;     dates  ? — ^none,   that's   out   of  my 
note  ;    nutmegs,  seven ;    a  race  or  two  of  ginger, 
but   that   I  may  beg ;    four  pound  of  prunes, 
and  as  many  of  raisins  o'  the  sun. 

The  Winter's  Tale. 

The  substances  described  in  this  chapter  are  not 
regarded  as  foods,  but  merely  as  seasoning.  They 
are  mixed  with  various  foods,  but  only  small  quan- 
tities are  used,  and  they  have  no  direct  nutritive 
functions.  They  are  valued  chiefly  for  their  appe- 
tizing qualities.  A  full  account  of  these  articles 
would  occupy  much  space  ;  a  few  examples  only 
may  be  briefly  noticed.  The  distinction  commonly 
drawn  between  spices  and  condiments  is  purely 
conventional. 

The  spices  are  all  vegetable  products,  derived 
from  various  species  of  tropical  plants.  They  con- 
sist of  the  fruit,  stems,  roots  or  other  parts.  They 
are  dried,  or  otherwise  prepared,  before  being  put 
on  the  market.  They  are  composed  mainly  of 
cellulose,  starch,  fat  and  protein,  but  differ  widely 
in  regard  to  the  proportions  of  these  ingredients. 
By  far  the  most  important  constituents,  however, 

131 


132  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

are  the  volatile  oils,  tannins  and  resinous  substances 
to  which  they  chiefly  owe  their  aromatic  properties. 

The  volatile  or  essential  oils  usually  consist  of 
ethers,  aldehydes  and  terpene  hydrocarbons.  Some 
of  them  are  complex  mixtures  of  uncertain  com- 
position. The  proportion  of  volatile  oil  is  usually 
small ;  in  cloves  it  varies  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  ; 
in  most  others,  it  rarely  exceeds  3  or  4  per  cent.  ; 
and  in  some,  e.g.  cinnamon,  about  1  per  cent,  is 
common.  The  loss  of  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  this  important  constituent,  therefore,  greatly 
reduces  the  pungency  of  the  spices ;  and  most 
of  them  rapidly  deteriorate — Closing  flavour  and 
aroma — on  keeping,  owing  to  evaporation  of  the 
volatile  oils.  Ground  spices  are,  naturally,  more 
largely  affected  in  this  way  than  those  in  the  whole 
state. 

Ground  spices  are  very  easily  adulterated  with 
cereal  starches,  nutshells,  ground  bark,  sawdust 
and  other  worthless  materials  which  resemble  the 
spices  in  appearance  and  composition.  The  pres- 
ence of  such  foreign  ingredients  is  easily  distinguished 
under  the  microscope.  The  abstraction  of  a  portion 
of  the  volatile  oil  or  admixture  of  a  quantity  of  the 
spice  which  has  been  completely  exhausted  of  this 
constituent  is  not  so  easily  detected.  This  is  by 
far  the  commonest  form  of  fraud.  It  is  applicable 
to  whole  as  well  as  to  ground  samples,  and  it  can 
only  be  determined  by  chemical  analysis.  The  high 
price  which  spices  command  makes  adulteration 
very  profitable. 

Nutmegs  and  mace  are  both  obtained  from  the 
fruit  of  the  nutmeg  tree.  The  former  are  the 
kernels,  and  the  latter  the  fleshy-fibrous  covering 
which   surrounds   them.     The   aromatic   principles 


SPICES,   CONDIMENTS,   ETC.  133 

of  the  two  spices  are  much  alike,  but  mace  contains 
nearly  twice  as  much  volatile  oil  as  nutmegs. 

Pimento  or  allspice,  is  the  dried  fruit  of  a  plant 
which  belongs  to  the  myrtle  family.  The  essential 
oil  is  concentrated  in  the  excrescences  with  which 
the  berries  are  covered,  but  the  spice  is  usually 
retailed  in  the  powdered  condition.  It  is  fairly 
cheap,  but  not  very  pungent. 

The  clove  tree  also  belongs  to  the  myrtle  family. 
Cloves  are  the  undeveloped  flower  buds.  They 
are  plucked  green,  and  when  dried  in  the  sun,  they 
assume  the  well  known  dark  brown  colour  and 
develop  their  characteristic  flavour  and  aroma. 

Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  the  cinnamon  tree 
— a  species  of  laurel,  extensively  cultivated  in 
Ceylon.  The  cylindrical  form,  in  which  it  is  usually 
placed  on  the  market,  is  produced  by  rolling  the 
bark  before  it  is  dried.  Much  of  the  bark  sold  as 
cinnamon  is  really  cassia — another  plant  of  the 
same  species.  The  latter  is  usually  thicker  and 
coarser  than  the  cinnamon  of  Ceylon,  but  in  other 
respects  they  are  very  similar,  and  the  substitution 
is  not  regarded  as  fraud. 

Ginger  is  the  root  of  a  herbaceous  annual.  When 
the  plant  withers,  after  a  year's  growth,  the  root 
is  dug  up  and  dried.  The  irregularly  branched 
fragments  form  the  black  or  whole  ginger  of  com- 
merce. The  white  variety  is  produced  by  scraping 
off  the  epidermis  ;  the  inner  part  of  the  root  is 
then  bleached.  The  exterior  portion  thus  removed 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  resinous  matter, 
and  the  decorticated  variety  is,  therefore,  not  so 
strongly  aromatic  as  the  black  or  whole  ginger. 
For  the  preparation  of  preserved  ginger,  the  root 
is  softened  in  boiling  water  and  then  saturated 
with  sugar. 


134  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  flavouring  essences  of  commerce  are  not,  as 
might  be  supposed,  pure  essential  oils,  but  dilute 
alcoholic  solutions  of  the  same,  or,  more  commonly, 
alcoholic  extracts  of  the  spices  from  which  they 
are  derived.  It  is  the  exhausted  residues  from 
these  processes  that  are  used  to  adulterate  the  spices 
in  the  manner  described  above.  They  are  fre- 
quently adulterated  in  various  ways,  e.g.  by  diluting 
or  reducing  the  strength  of  the  extract,  by  addition 
or  substitution  of  an  extract  of  some  similar  but 
cheaper  commodity,  or  by  addition  or  substitution 
of  artificially  prepared  compounds,  ethers,  etc., 
which  possess  the  characteristic  flavour  of  the 
essence.  The  last  mentioned  substances  are  much 
cheaper,  and  are  extensively  used  for  flavouring 
sweets,  and  aerated  waters.  Most  of  the  so-called 
fruit  essences  are  of  this  kind.  They  are,  however, 
usually  described  as  "  artificial,"  and  not  fraudu- 
lently substituted  for  genuine  essences. 

Vanilla  essence  is  the  extract  prepared  from  the 
vanilla  bean,  the  fruit  of  a  tropical  plant  belonging 
to  the  orchid  family.  It  contains  about  40  per  cent, 
of  alcohol,  20  per  cent,  of  added  cane  sugar,  and 
rarely  more  than  about  0*2  per  cent,  of  vanillin, 
the  principle  to  which  it  chiefly  owes  its  peculiar 
flavour  and  odour. 

Essence  of  almonds  is  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  To  prepare  the  oil,  the 
fixed  fat  is  first  removed  by  pressure  (p.  114)  and 
the  crushed  seeds  are  then  distilled  with  water. 
The  volatile  oil  contains  a  quantity  of  the  highly 
poisonous  prussic  acid  ^  which  must  be  removed. 
The  purified  product  consists  of  benzaldehyde  ;  ^ 
it  is  commonly  known  as  oil  of  bitter  almonds, 

^  The  benzaldehyde  and  prussic  acid  are  both  formed. 


SPICES,  CONDIMENTS,   ETC.  135 

though  generally  prepared  from  apricot  and  peach 
stones.  The  commercial  essence  contains  about 
1  per  cent,  of  this  substance,  a  quantity  which 
imparts  a  very  strong  almond  flavour  and  odour. 

Essence  of  lemon  is  an  alcohoHc  solution  of  the 
oil  of  lemon,  of  which  it  should  contain  at  least  5 
per  cent.  The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  rind  by 
pressure,  or  by  treatment  with  hot  water.  The 
essence  is  coloured  with  the  extract  from  the  peel, 
but  turmeric  and  other  dyes  are  occasionally  used. 
Essence  of  lemon  is,  perhaps,  more  extensively 
used  for  domestic  purposes  than  any  other  flavour- 
ing. Some  of  the  cheaper  qualities  contain  much 
less  than  5  per  cent,  of  lemon  oil. 

The  condiments  commonly  used  at  the  table 
are,  salt,  pepper,  mustard,  vinegar  and  ketchup. 
They  are  necessarily  very  familiar,  and  need  but 
little  description. 

Common  salt  is  a  mineral  substance  known  to 
chemists  as  sodium  chloride.  It  is  sold  in  a  nearly 
pure  state,  and,  being  very  cheap,  is  rarely  adul- 
terated. A  certain  amount  of  it  is  necessary  for 
physiological  purposes,  as  well  as  for  its  savour. 
Excessive  quantities,  however,  retard  digestion 
(p.  20),  and  are  otherwise  deleterious.  The  quanti- 
ties commonly  used  are  much  larger  than  are  actually 
required. 

Peppercorns  are  the  dried  fruit  of  the  pepper 
plant,    several    varieties    of    which    are    grown    in 

during  the  process  of  distillation,  by  decomposition  of 
the  glucoside  amygdalin  which  is  present  in  the  bitter 
almonds,  thus — 

CaoHs^OuN  +  2H2O  =  C^HgO  +  HON  +  ATI.^Oq. 

Amygdalin  benzal-    prussic  glucose 

dehyde       acid 


136  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

different  localities.  When  the  berries  are  dried, 
the  outer  skin  becomes  black  and  shrivelled.  This 
product  is  known  as  black  pepper  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  white  pepper  which  is  produced  by 
soaking  the  berries  in  water  and  removing  the 
husk  when  softened.  Both  black  and  white  pepper 
are  sold  in  the  ground  as  well  as  in  the  whole  con- 
dition. Ground  black  pepper  is  sometimes  adulter- 
ated with  the  powdered  husks  of  peppercorns. 
Ground  olive  stones,  starches  and  other  substances 
have  also  been  used.  The  piquant  taste  of  pepper 
is  due  to  the  volatile  oil — a,  hydrocarbon — a  peculiar 
acrid  resin,  and  a  neutral  principle  called  piperin. 
Cayenne  pepper  is  the  ground  dried  pods  of  Capsi- 
cum, an  entirely  different  plant,  which  belongs  to 
the  nightshade  family. 

Mustard  is  prepared  from  the  dried  seeds  of  the 
mustard  plant  of  which  there  are  two  common  varie- 
ties, known  as  black  and  white  mustard  respectively. 
Both  varieties  grow  well  in  this  country,  and 
are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  eastern  counties. 
The  seeds  are  merely  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and 
sifted  to  remove  the  refuse  or  dressings.  Starch 
is  not  a  constituent  of  mustard  seed,  but  is  occasion- 
ally added  as  an  adulterant,  turmeric  being  u^ed 
to  colour  it.  Genuine  samples  contain  from  33  to 
87  per  cent,  of  fixed  oil,  but  usually  less  than  1 
per  cent,  of  volatile  oil  ^ — ^the  principle  to  which 
mustard  owes  its  characteristic  odour  and  irritant 
action. 

Vinegar  has  been  defined  as  soured  wine  and 
that,  no  doubt,  is  the  source  from  which  it  was  first 
obtained.  The  souring  is  due  to  oxidation  of  the 
alcohol,    which    is    thereby    converted    into    acetic 

1  ADyl  isothyocyanate  C3H5CNS. 


SPICES,  CONDIMENTS,  ETC.  137 

acid.  The  term  vinegar  might,  therefore,  be  applied 
as  appropriately  to  soured  beer  or  cider.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  it  has  been  applied  to  these  and  other 
similar  products.  The  vinegar  chiefly  used  in  this 
country  is  known  as  malt  vinegar.  It  is  brewed 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  beer,  but 
without  the  addition  of  hops.  The  malt  is  mashed 
and  the  wort  is  fermented  with  yeast.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  flow  over  piles  of  birch  twigs,  or  wood 
shavings,  which  are  coated  with  a  growth  of  a  fungus, 
called  the  vinegar  plant,  because  it  induces  the 
acetic  fermentation.  Practically  the  whole  of  the 
alcohol  is  converted  into  acetic  acid,  but  traces 
remain — or  are  added — and  gradually  combine 
with  the  acid  forming  ether,  which  greatly  improves 
the  flavour.  It  is  chiefly  for  this  reason  that  the 
vinegar  is  stored  for  several  months  before  being 
sold.  White  or  distilled  vinegar  is  prepared  from 
this  brown  vinegar  by  distillation.  Genuine  vinegar 
of  good  quality  contains  from  5  to  6  per  cent,  of 
acetic  acid,  but  it  is  sold  at  different  strengths,  and 
the  cheaper  qualities  are  more  dilute.  The  alcoholic 
liquors  produced  by  fermentation  of  glucose,  mo- 
lasses, etc.,  may  also  be  subjected  to  acetic  fermenta- 
tion, but  the  products  have  not  the  properties  of 
malt  vinegar.  Acetic  acid  can  be  artificially  pre- 
pared, and  it  can  also  be  obtained  very  cheaply 
by  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  This  product 
is  sometimes  used  to  adulterate  genuine  vinegar, 
or  diluted  with  water  and  fraudulently  substituted 
for  the  latter.  It  is  also  sold  under  the  name  of 
wood  vinegar. 

<  Saccharin  is  not  usually  described  either  as  a 
condiment  or  a  spice,  though  it  is  sometimes  used 
to  flavour  foods.     It  has  an  intensely  sweet  taste 


138  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

estimated  at  from  300  to  500  times  as  sweet  as  that 
of  cane  sugar.  Comparatively  small  quantities 
may,  therefore,  be  used,  and  it  is  much  appreciated 
by  diabetics  and  others  to  whom  the  use  of  sugars 
is  forbidden.  It  is  a  coal-tar  ^  product,  and  has 
no  nutritive  value  whatever. 

Yeast  is  a  kind  of  fungus,  i.e.  a  plant  or  vegetable 
organism.  It  consists  of  minute  cells  which  are 
not,  singly,  visible  to  the  naked  eye.     When  put 


Fig.  10.     Yeast  Cells. 

(Magnified  200) 

into  beer  worts,  or  other  suitable  medium,  the 
cells  sprout  and  produce  buds  which  soon  split  off, 
forming  new  cells,  and  the  process  is  repeated 
indefinitely.  At  a  suitable  temperature  the  multi- 
plication of  the  cells  takes  place  very  rapidly.  The 
growth  of  the  yeast  is  accompanied  by  chemical 
changes  in  the  wort  or  medium.  Sugar  is  split  up 
1  Benzoyl  sulpliimide  (CeH4.CO.SO2.NH). 


SPICES,  CONDIMENTS,   ETC.  139 

into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  the  process 
is  called  alcoholic  fermentation.  The  yeast  floats 
on  the  surface  of  the  liquor  ;  it  can  be  skimmed 
off  when  its  work  is  done,  and  used  over  again. 
The  quantity  of  yeast  increases  each  time  it  is  used 
in  this  way,  and  the  brewers  are  usually  glad  to 
sell  some  of  it. 

The  action  of  yeast  in  bread  making  is  of  a 
similar  kind.  The  yeast  is  mixed  with  the  dough, 
and  allowed  to  stand  at  a  suitable  temperature. 
Fermentation  sets  in  and  carbonic  acid  gas  is  pro- 
duced. The  tiny  bubbles  of  gas,  which  remain 
entangled  in  the  dough,  expand  greatly  on  the 
application  of  heat  and  cause  the  bread  to  "  rise." 
If  the  fermentation  be  too  long  continued,  or  if  the 
yeast  be  not  pure,  lactic  acid  may  be  formed,  and 
the  bread  will  be  sour.  The  activity  of  the  yeast 
is  destroyed,  and  the  process  arrested,  by  the  high 
temperature  to  which  it  is  exposed  when  the  bread 
is  baked. 

To  facilitate  distribution,  yeast  is  put  up  in 
packets  in  the  dry  form.  The  yeast,  after  being 
separated  from  impurities  and  washed  with  water, 
is  mixed  with  starch.  A  stiff  dough  is  thus  formed 
which  can  be  moulded  into  cakes  and  dried  at  a 
low  temperature.  Sometimes  the  starch  is  dis- 
pensed with,  the  pure  yeast  being  simply  moulded 
into  cakes  by  pressure.  If  kept  in  a  cool  place, 
these  dry  yeasts  remain  fresh  and  active  for  a  long 
time. 

The  action  of  baking  powders,  which  are  some- 
times used  instead  of  yeast  to  "  raise  "  bread  and 
cakes,  also  depends  upon  the  formation  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.  In  this  case,  however,  the  gas  is  formed, 
not  by  the  action  of  the  powder  on  the  carbohy- 


140  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

drates  of  the  flour,  but  by  the  inter-action  of  the 
ingredients  of  the  powder  itself.  Two  things, 
therefore,  are  essential,  viz.  a  carbonate  and  an 
acid  to  act  upon  it.  The  former  almost  invariably 
consists  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  This  substance 
has  consequently  been  called  "  baking  soda '' ; 
it  is  familiar  to  most  housekeepers  under  that 
name. 

Sour  milk  is  sometimes  used  to  supply  the  acid.^ 
The  dry  baking  powder  is  mixed  with  the  flour, 
and  when  the  sour  milk  is  added  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  formed.  This  plan  is,  however,  open  to  the  very 
serious  objection  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  exactly 
what  quantities  of  baking  soda  and  sour  milk 
should  be  used.  If  any  of  the  former  remains 
unacted  upon  by  the  acid  of  the  milk,  it  imparts 
a  very  disagreeable  flavour  to  the  bread.  Gener- 
ally, the  older  the  milk  the  more  acid  it  contains, 
and,  therefore,  the  better  it  will  act ;  but  if  it  be 
too  old,  it  becomes  rancid, ^  and  acquires  a  strong 
taste. 

It  is  better,  therefore,  to  use  some  dry  acid, 
which  can  be  mixed  with  the  baking  soda  in  pro- 
perly adjusted  proportions,  i.e.  so  that  none  of 
either  remains  when  the  action  is  over.  Tartaric 
acid,  or  cream  of  tartar,  is,  perhaps,  the  best ;  but 
alum  or  acid  phosphate  of  lime  are  sometimes 
employed. 

Both  baking  soda  and  tartaric  acid  are  crystalline 
powders.  They  may  be  mixed  together  and  will 
remain  unchanged  so  long  as  the  mixture  is  kept 
perfectly  dry.     But  if   the   mixture   be   moistened 

^  Sour  milk  contains  lactic  acid. 

^  This  due  to  the  formation  of  a  substance  called  butyric 
acid. 


SPICES,  CONDIMENTS,  ETC.  141 

with  water  the  two  substances  act  upon  each  other, 
and  carbonic  acid  gas  is  formed  as  a  result  of  the 
chemical  ^  change.  Cream  of  tartar  acts  in  an 
almost  exactly  similar  manner. 

Such  baking  powders  may  be  conveniently  pre- 
pared at  home  by  simply  mixing  the  ingredients 
in  the  proportion  of  6  parts  of  baking  soda  to 
5  parts  of  tartaric  acid  or  13  J  parts  of  cream 
of  tartar.  The  separate  substances  should  be  first 
dried  in  the  oven  for  an  hour  at  a  low  temper- 
ature, and  then  well  ground  in  a  mortar.  The 
mixture,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  attracts  moisture, 
and  must  be  kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle.  Baking 
powder  which  has  been  allowed  to  become  moist 
is  useless.  It  forms  lumps  and  does  not  act  pro- 
perly. To  avoid  this,  commercial  baking  powders 
are  generally  mixed  with  starch,  in  addition  to  the 
constituents  mentioned  above.  A  smaller  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  is,  therefore,  produced  from  a  given 
quantity  of  the  mixture,  and  a  slightly  larger  quan- 
tity of  it  must  be  used  to  produce  the  same  effect. 
The  proportion  of  starch  is  usually  about  10  per 
cent.,  but  it  is  sometimes  much  larger. 

Rennet  is  a  fluid  prepared  from  the  membrane 
or  lining  of  the  fourth  stomach  of  a  calf.  Its  com- 
position is  complex  and  not  well  understood,  but 
the  essential  constituent  is  a  ferment  which  causes 
the  casein  of  milk  to  curdle.  It  is  used  for  this 
purpose  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  (p.  99)  and 
also  in  the  preparation  of  junket.     The  ferment  is 

^  The  chemical  change  may  be  represented  by  the 
foUowing  equation — 

2NaHC03 + H2C4H,Og = Na2C4H406  +  2H2O  +  2CO2. 

Sod.  bicarb    Tartaric  Acid      3gd,  tartrate      Water  Carbonic 

acid 


142  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

most  active  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  If 
allowed  to  act  too  long,  changes  similar  to  those 
involved  in  the  digestion  of  protein  set  in,  and  the 
curd  acquires  a  very  disagreeable  flavour. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
EFFECTS  OP  COOKING  FOOD 

One  of  the  privileges  of  the  human  species  is  that  of 
drinking  without  being  thirsty.  In  the  present  state  of  the 
culinary  art,  cooks  make  us  eat  without  being  hungry. 

Physiologic  du  Gout. 

The  term  cooking  is  generally  understood  to  in- 
clude all  the  processes  by  which  food,  as  purchased 
retail,  is  prepared  for  the  table  ;  but  it  is  also  used 
in  a  narrower  sense  with  reference  merely  to  the 
changes  produced  in  the  food  by  the  application  of 
heat. 

Heat  may  be  applied  either  by  the  wet  or  by  the 
dry  method.  The  former  includes  all  processes 
— ^boiling,  stewing,  steaming,  etc. — ^in  which  the 
food  is  "  sodden  with  water  "  ;  the  latter,  all  pro- 
cesses— broiling,  baking,  frpng,  etc. — ^in  which 
it  is  "  roast  with  fire." 

All  kinds  of  flesh  foods,  poultry,  fish,  and  some 
vegetables  may  be  cooked  by  either  method.  The 
fatter  and  more  tender  kinds  of  meat  are  usually 
roasted ;  the  tougher  and  leaner  kinds,  and  most 
vegetable  products,  are  more  commonly  cooked  in 
or  with  water. 

The  principal  object  of  cooking  is  to  improve  the 
flavour  of  the  food  and  stimulate  the  appetite  by 
the  odours  which  are  given  off.     There  are,  how- 


144  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

ever,  other  effects  of  considerable  importance  which 
must  be  briefly  considered. 

Cooking  sterilizes  the  food.  It,  therefore,  tends 
to  preserve  it  from  decomposition,  and  to  destroy 
pathogenic  forms  which  might  otherwise  set  up 
diseases  of  various  kinds.  Spores  of  tubercle  and 
other  bacteria  have  been  found  in  meats  cooked 
in  the  ordinary  ways,  but  such  cases  are  probably 
exceptional.  At  all  events,  cooking  greatly  dimin- 
ishes the  risk. 

The  effect  of  cooking  on  the  digestibility  of  meat 
is  uncertain.  According  to  some  authorities, 
moderately  cooked  meat  remains  longer  in  the 
stomach  than  raw  meat  in  a  similar  condition  (p. 
23).  This,  however,  is  doubtful,  and  it  is  probable 
that  they  are  ultimately  assimilated  to  a  nearly 
equal  extent  by  persons  in  health.  Cooked  meat, 
however,  is  much  more  easily  masticated  than 
similar  meat  in  a  raw  state,  and  this  fact  probably 
has  a  much  greater  influence  on  the  digestibility 
than  any  changes  due  to  the  processes  of  cooking. 

When  meat  is  cooked  by  any  of  the  ordinary 
methods,  it  loses  from  10  to  50  percent,  of  its  original 
weight.  The  loss  always  consists  mainly  of  water, 
but  both  protein  and  fat  are  also  involved  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent. 

The  proteids  are  coagulated  (p.  28)  by  heat; 
but  some  part — ^usually  only  a  small  proportion — 
imdergoes  chemical  changes  by  which  gelatin, 
nitrogenous  extractives  and  other  substances  are 
produced.  These  changes  are  very  complex  and 
obscure,  but  it  is  evident  that  they  must  tend  to 
reduce  the  nutritive  value  of  the  food,  even  if  the 
products  be  collected  and  consumed. 

The  fat  is  melted  by  heat  and^  as  is  well  known, 


EFFECTS  OF  COOKING  FOOD         145 

its  consistency  is  changed.  A  part  of  it — ^usually 
a  considerable  amount — escapes  from  the  meat  in 
the  process,  but  this  may  be  collected  and  con- 
sumed, and  its  nutritive  value  is  not  appreciably 
altered. 

It  is  only  within  recent  years  that  the  loss  due 
to  cooking  meat  in  various  ways  has  been  carefully 
investigated,  and  much  work  still  remains  to  be 
done  in  this  direction. 

In  Grindley's  ^  experiments  it  was  found  that 
when  meat  is  cooked  in  water  at  80°  to  85°  C,  placing 
the  meat  in  hot  or  cold  water  at  the  start  has  very 
little  effect  upon  the  amount  of  material  found 
in  the  broth.  A  contrary  opinion  is  very  generally 
entertained  by  cooks.  It  is  supposed  that  when 
meat  is  plunged  into  boiling  water  the  protein  at 
the  exterior  is  immediately  coagulated,  and  that 
this  hinders  the  escape  of  the  juices.  This  proce- 
dure is,  therefore,  usually  adopted  when  the  meat 
is  to  be  eaten  and  the  broth  rejected.  When  it  is 
desired  to  extract  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
meat,  e.g.  in  making  soup,  the  meat  is  usually 
"  put  on  "  with  cold  water  and  the  temperature 
is  gradually  raised. 

In  ninety  tests,  the  average  loss  of  protein  was 
7*25  per  cent.  The  greatest  loss,  12*67  per  cent., 
occurred  when  the  meat  was  cut  into  small  cubes 
and  cooked  for  a  very  long  time.  The  smallest 
loss  was  3*25  per  cent. ;  this  was  from  a  large  piece 
of  very  fat  meat  cooked  for  a  Httle  over  two  hours. 

The  loss  of  fat  varied  from  0-6  to  37*4  per  cent., 

the  average  being  11*7  per  cent.     The  smallest  loss 

was  noted  when  the  meat  was  cooked  at  a  low 

temperature,  65°  to  70°  C.  for  five  and  a  half  hours. 

Bui  No.  141,     U,S.  Dept.  of  Ag. 


146  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  greatest  loss  of  fat  took  place  when  the  meat 
was  cooked  in  boiling  water  for  ten  minutes  and 
then  for  three  hours  at  80°  to  85°  C.  The  loss  of 
fat  appears  to  depend  largely  upon  the  kind  of  fat, 
and  only  to  a  small  extent  upon  the  quantity  pre- 
sent. 

In  the  roasting  experiments,  the  meat  was  gener- 
ally cooked  for  fifteen  minutes  at  about  250°  C, 
and  afterwards  at  190°  C.  for  various  lengths  of 
time.  The  total  loss  of  weight  was  less  than  in 
any  other  method  of  cooking,  but  it  included  a 
larger  proportion  of  fat. 

The  loss  of  fat  varied  from  4-53  to  57'49  per  cent, 
and  averaged  34-27,  or  nearly  three  times  as  much 
as  in  the  boiling  experiments. 

The  loss  of  nitrogenous  matter  varied  from  0*25 
to  4*55  per  cent.,  the  average  being  1*97  per  cent., 
or  less  than  haK  that  due  to  boiling. 

The  greatest  losses  occurred  when  the  meat  was 
roasted  at  high  temperatures. 

It  was  also  found  that,  whatever  the  method  of 
cooking,  the  loss  was  greater  the  longer  the  process 
was  continued  ;  but,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
larger  pieces  of  meat  lost  relatively  less  than  the 
smaller  pieces.  Marked  differences  were,  how- 
ever, observed,  not  only  as  between  different  kinds 
of  meat,  but  also  between  different  cuts  of  the  same 
kind. 

The  presence  of  carbohydrates  in  vegetables 
introduces  another  factor  for  consideration  in 
regard  to  these  products.  When  vegetables  are 
cooked  in  water,  the  cellulose  absorbs  water,  and 
becomes  much  softer  and  more  easily  masticated, 
but  it  remains,  in  most  cases,  practically  indigestible. 
The  cell  walls^  however,  are  ruptured  and  the  con- 


EFFECTS  OF  COOKING  FOOD        147 

tents  are  thus  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  water 
used  in  cooking.  Starch  granules  swell  up  and 
are  deformed  (p.  32),  and  are  thus  rendered  more 
digestible. 

The  whole  of  the  nutrients  in  vegetables,  however, 
are  not  always  enclosed  in  the  cells.  A  variable, 
but  sometimes  large  proportion  exists  in  solution 
in  the  juice,  if  any  be  present.  This  applies  not 
only  to  the  non-proteid  nitrogenous  substances — 
sometimes  as  much  as  half  the  total  nitrogen  is 
present  in  this  form — but  also  to  some  of  the  true 
albuminoids,  sugars,  and,  possibly,  certain  mucila- 
ginous products. 

A  large  proportion  of  these  soluble  substances 
is  liable  to  be  lost  when  the  vegetables  are  cooked 
in  water,  and  generally  no  attempt  is  made  to 
recover  it.  Coagulation  of  the  soluble  protein  by 
the  heat  tends  to  diminish  the  loss  of  that  constitu- 
ent, if  it  be  not  first  extracted  by  cold  water,  but  the 
sugars  are  not  protected  in  any  way.  In  some 
cases,  even  the  starch,  though  insoluble,  suffers  a 
certain  amount  of  loss  mechanically. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  loss  of  nutrients 
will  be  increased  by  cutting  the  vegetables  into 
small  pieces,  and  by  soaking  them  in  cold  water 
before  cooking.  In  the  case  of  potatoes,  turnips 
and  similar  products,  the  loss  might  be  greatly 
diminished  by  cooking  them  whole  with  the  skins 
on,  but,  as  a  rule,  this  method  is  not  practicable. 

These  conclusions  are  confirmed  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Snyder,^  Frisby  and  Bryant.  They 
found  that  when  potatoes  were  peeled,  cut  into  pieces 
in  the  usual  way,  and  soaked  in  cold  water  before 

1  Bui  43.     U.S.  Dept.  of  Ag. 


148  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

boiling,  about  balf  the  total  nitrogen — including 
about  a  quarter  of  the  true  albuminoids — was  lost. 
When  put  into  cold  water  and  cooked  at  once,  only 
about  a  sixth  of  the  total  nitrogen — ^including  a 
twelfth  part  of  the  true  albuminoids — ^was  lost. 
When  the  potatoes  were  put,  at  once,  into  boil- 
ing water,  the  loss  was  only  about  half  the  amount 
recorded  in  the  last  case  ;  but,  for  some  reason, 
this  method  is  not  suitable  for  some  kinds  of  pota- 
toes, as  they  "go  to  smash  "  if  so  treated.  The 
loss  from  potatoes  boiled  in  their  skins  was  quite 
inconsiderable,  being  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nitrogen. 

In  boiling  carrots  which  had  been  scraped  and 
cut  into  pieces,  the  amount  of  the  loss  was  found  to 
depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the  pieces. 
Small  pieces  lost  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  total 
nitrogen  and  26  per  cent,  of  the  sugar.  With 
large  pieces,  the  loss  of  nitrogen  was  about  20  per 
cent,  and  of  sugar  15  per  cent. 

The  loss  on  cooking  cabbages  was  very  great. 
Under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  it  amounted 
to  30  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter  and  included 
about  a  third  each  of  the  total  nitrogen  and 
carbohydrates.  The  loss  of  nitrogen  was  chiefly 
non-proteid,  only  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  true 
albuminoids  being  extracted. 

In  other  experiments,  onions  and  turnips  lost 
over  80  per  cent,  of  the  carbohydrates  on  boiling. 

In  making  soups,  the  constituents  extracted 
by  boiling  water  are,  of  course,  not  lost. 

The  loss  from  vegetables  cooked  by  steaming  is 
much  smaller. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS 

Utility  is  not  the  measure  of  exchangeable  value, 
though  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  it. 

Ricardo, 

It  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said  in  previous 
chapters  that  there  is  very  little  connexion  between 
the  market  prices  of  foods  and  their  nutritive  values. 
The  former  are  regulated  by  the  laws  of  supply 
and  demand.  The  latter  depend  mainly  upon 
the  amounts  of  nutrients — ^protein,  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates— that  the  foods  contain. 

It  is  true,  in  general,  that  those  kinds  of  food 
which  contain  the  largest  amounts  of  nutrients  are 
in  greater  demand,  and  are,  therefore,  dearer ;  but 
it  is  quite  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  more  expen- 
sive kinds  of  food  necessarily,  or  even  generally, 
contain  more  nutritive  matters  than  the  cheaper 
forms. 

Questions  of  pecuniary  economy  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  determined  by  consideration,  either  of  the 
price  alone  or  of  the  composition  alone.  Com- 
parisons of  the  prices  of  foods,  without  reference 
to  their  composition,  are  meaningless.  To  com- 
pare the  composition  of  foods  apart  from  the  prices 
is  beside  the  question. 

What  is  required  is  some  method  by  which  we 


150  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

could  tell  how  much  any  given  food  is  worth,  com- 
pared with  any  other  of  which  the  price  is  known, 
e.g.  if  milk  be  worth  4:d.  per  quart  how  many  eggs 
should  one  get  for  a  shilling  ?  This  problem  can- 
not, of  course,  be  solved  by  "rule  of  three,"  and 
its  meaning  is  obscured  by  the  fact  that  it  is  stated 
as  if  it  might  be.  What  the  question  really  implies 
is  this — ^if  all  the  nutrients  in  a  quart  of  milk  be 
valued  at  4c?.,  and  if  the  nutrients  of  eggs  be  valued 
at  the  same  rates,  how  much  of  the  latter  would 
correspond  to  a  given  sum  of  money. 

The  nutrients  of  milk  consist  of  protein,  fat  and 
carbohydrates  ;  those  of  eggs  consist  of  protein 
and  fat  only.  The  protein  and  fat  are  not  present 
in  the  same  actual  or  relative  proportions  in  the 
two  foods.  In  order  to  solve  the  problem,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary  to  assign  values  to  each  of  the 
several  nutrients  in  the  milk  ;  and  these  values 
must  be  such  that,  when  they  are  multiplied  by 
the  percentages  of  the  nutrients  and  the  products 
are  added  together,  the  total  will  amount  to  4,d, 
If  the  same  values  be  now  multiplied  by  the  per- 
centages of  the  corresponding  nutrients  in  the  eggs 
and  the  products  added  together,  the  result  will  show 
how  much  the  eggs  are  worth  compared  with  milk, 
weight  ^  for  weight.  This  result,  it  will  be  seen, 
does  not  correspond  with  the  price  of  the  eggs,  which 
is  not  under  consideration.  It  may  be  called  the 
relative  value  of  the  eggs,  compared  with  milk. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  decide  exactly 
what  values  should  be  assigned  to  the  several 
nutrients  in  a  complex  substance  like  milk.  It  is, 
however,  comparatively  simple  in  the  case  of  those 
foods  which  contain  only  one  nutrient,  and  a  primary 
^  The  weight  of  a  quart  of  milk  is  about  2*5  lb. 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS  161 

indication  of  the  values  for  other  cases  is  thus 
obtained. 

For  example,  the  price  of  sugar  is  about  2d.  per 
lb.  The  substance  is  practically  pure,  i.e.  it  contains 
100  per  cent,  of  the  carbohydrate.  The  value  of 
1  per  cent,  is,  therefore,  yf^  =  0-02  ;  and  that  of 
any  food  which  contains,  say  50  per  cent,  of  sugar, 
0-02  X  50  =  Id.  per  lb.  In  like  manner,  the  value 
of  the  sugar  in  milk,  which  contains  about  5  per 
cent,  of  that  ingredient,  will  be  0-02  X  5  =  0-ld, 
per  lb.  of  milk. 

The  fats  may  be  evaluated  in  a  similar  manner. 
Beef  suet  costs  about  Sd.  per  lb.,  and  contains  about 
80  per  cent,  of  fat.  The  value  of  1  per  cent,  will 
therefore,  be  ^  =0-1,  i.e.  five  times  as  much  as  in 
the  case  of  carbohydrates.  ^  Calculating  with  this 
factor,  we  get  0-1  x  3-5  =  0-35d.  as  the  value  of 
the  fat  in  milk,  per  lb. 

The  value  of  the  protein  is  not  so  easily  deter- 
mined. None  of  the  ordinary  foods  consist  of  pure 
protein  or  contain  that  substance  only.  Lean  beef, 
e.g.  the  round,  however,  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  protein  and  a  comparatively  small  proportion  of 
fat ;  and  if  the  value  of  the  latter  be  known,  or  can 
be  determined,  it  can  be  eliminated  and  the  value 
of  the  protein  thus,  approximately,  ascertained. 
Assuming  that  the  beef  (round)  costs  8d.  per  lb.,  and 
that  it  contains  20  per  cent,  protein  and  10  per  cent, 
of  fat ;  the  value  of  the  latter  may  be  estimated  as 
before — 0-1  x  10  =  Id.  per  lb.  of  beef;  deducting 
this  from  the  price  of  the  total  we  have  8  —  1  = 
Id.  as  the  value  of  the  protein,  of  which  there  is  20 

^  This  statement  refers  to  the  pecuniary  value  only. 
The  nutritive  value  of  fat  is  only  2*27  times  that  of  the 
carbohydrates  (see  p.  36). 


152  ECONOMY  OF  FOOB 

per  cent.  The  value  of  1  per  cent,  will,  therefore, 
be  ^  =  0-35,  i.e.  17-5  times  as  much  as  the  carbo- 
hydrates. Calculating  with  this  factor,  we  get 
0-34  X  3-5=  l'22d.  as  the  value  of  the  protein  in  the 
milk,  per  lb. 

The  sum  of  the  values  of  the  several  constituents, 
calculated  as  above,  it  will  be  seen,  amounts  to  1-67 
pence  per  lb.  of  milk,  or  4-17  pence  per  quart  (2-6 
lb.),  whereas  it  should  have  been  exactly  fourpence. 
It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  the  data  were 
given  merely  to  illustrate  the  method,  not  as  final 
conclusions,  and  the  factors  are,  therefore,  subject 
to  revision. 

By  the  hypothesis,  the  differences  in  the  prices 
of  the  foods  imply  that  the  same  values  cannot  be 
assigned  to  the  nutrients  in  each  case.  For  example, 
the  price  of  mutton  suet  is  only  about  5d.  per  lb.  ; 
on  the  other  hand  that  of  several  of  the  vegetable 
oils  is  considerably  higher.  It  is  obvious  that  if 
the  calculation  had  been  based  on  any  of  these,  a 
different  factor  for  fat  would  have  been  obtained. 
In  like  manner,  by  selecting  other  foods,  different 
factors  might  have  been  obtained  for  the  protein 
and  carbohydrates. 

For  the  present  purpose,  i.e.  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  values  of  foods,  it  is  not  necessary . 
to  decide  exactly  what  values  should  be  assigned  to 
each  nutrient.  It  is  only  necessary  to  assume  that 
they  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other  in  all 
cases,  1  and  to  determine  what  that  relation  is. 

^  In  some  vegetables,  e.g.  turnips,  the  total  nitrogen 
is  not  all  present  as  true  proteid,  and  in  others  there  may- 
be differences  in  the  relative  digestibility  of  the  nutrients  ; 
these  cases  require  special  consideration,  but  do  not 
necessarily  invalidate  the  assumption. 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OP  FOODS  153 

In  the  case  cited  above  the  factors  were  0'02  for 
carbohydrates,  0-1  for  fat  and  0-35  for  protein. 
These  factors  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of 
1,  6,  and  17-5  ;  but,  it  has  been  said,  they  are  subject 
to  revision,  and  the  author  has  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion, after  examining  a  large  number  of  cases,  that 
the  relation  of  1,  4,  and  20  more  nearly  represents 
the  truth. 

The  relative  value  of  foods  may  then  be  worked 
out  according  to  the  formula  : — 

20P,+4J^2+<^2 
^       20Pi+4i^i  +Ci 

F,  is  the  relative  value  ;  Pi,  Ft  and  Ci  are  re- 
spectively the  percentages  of  protein,  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates in  any  food  of  which  the  value  is  to  be 
taken  as  unity  ;  and  P2,  F2  and  C2  are  respectively 
the  percentages  of  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates 
in  any  other  food. 

The  formula  may  be  used  as  a  concise  definition 
of  the  term  relative  value. 

Sometimes,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  fractions,  it 
may  be  convenient  to  multiply  the  relative  values 
by  100  and  then  take  the  nearest  whole  number. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  the  formula  may 
be  applied  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  eggs 
compared  with  milk.  These  foods  contain  the 
following  proportions  of  nutrients  : — 

Protein.  Fat.  Carbohydrates. 

Milk     ....      3-5       . .        3-6       . .       4-9  per  cent. 
Eggs    ....    13-1       ..        9.3       ..        — 

(13-1x20) +(9-3x4)     _    262-0 +  37-2     _3-32^^332 
^"(3-5x20) +(3.6x4) +4-9     70.0  +  14-4+4.9       1         100 


154  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

The  relative  value  of  eggs,  compared  with  milk 
as  unity,  is,  therefore,  3-32 ;  or,  if  1  lb.  of  milk  be 
worth  100,  1  lb.  of  eggs  is  worth  332. 

To  the  housekeeper,  this  statement  may  acquire 
more  definite  meaning  if  translated  into  terms  of 
pence.     This  may  be  easily  done  as  follows  : — 

If  1  lb.  of  milk  be  worth  1,  1  lb.  of  eggs  is  worth 
3-32  ;  therefore,  if  1  lb.  of  milk  be  worth  1-6  pence 
(4:d.  per  quart),  1  lb.  of  eggs  is  worth  1-6  x  3-32 
=5-3  pence  ;  or,  assuming  9  eggs  to  the  lb.,  they 
are  worth  7d.  per  dozen,  i.e.,  about  20  for  a  shilling. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  arithmetical  process 
consists  merely  in  multiplying  the  relative  value 
of  the  eggs  (3-32)  by  the  price  per  lb.  of  the  milk. 
Thus,  if  the  milk  were  put  at  M.  per  quart  {l'2d. 
per  lb.),  the  eggs  would  be  worth  3-32  x  1-2  = 
4:d.  per  lb.,  or  about  S^d.  per  dozen. 

A  few  further  examples  may  be  given.  If  it  be 
desired  to  compare,  say  beef  and  bread  respectively 
with  milk  and  with  each  other,  the  composition 
of  the  foods  must  be  looked  up  in  the  appen- 
dix. The  percentages  of  the  nutrients  must  then 
be  multiplied  by  the  coefficients  given  in  the 
formula.  Thus  we  have,  for  beef  round,  19  x  20  + 
12-8  x  4  =  431-2  ;  and  for  bread,  9-2x20  +  1-3  X 
4  +  53-1  =  242-3.  The  numbers  431-2  and  242-3 
(i.e.  the  sum  of  the  percentages  multiplied  by  their 
respective  coefficients)  may  be  called  the  number  of 
units  of  value.  To  find  the  relative  values  of  the 
foods,  compared  with  milk,  these  numbers  are  divided 
by  the  number  of  units  of  value  in  the  milk,  viz., 
89-3,  thus  :— 

431-2  _483  2423  _271 

89-3  ""lOO  89-3  ""lOO 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  POODS  155 

If  it  be  desired  to  compare,  say  beef  and  milk 
respectively  with  bread  as  100,  we  have — 

431-2_177  89-3  _  37 

242-3     100  242-3     100 

Translated  into  terms  of  pence  as  before,  the 
results  may  be  stated  in  tabular  form  as  follows  : — 


Assumed  Price  of 

Corresponding  Value  of 

Meat. 
lOd.  per  lb. 
Sd. 

Milk. 
5  Id.  per  quart 

Bread. 

5^d.  per  lb. 
4:hd. 

Milk. 
4:d.  per  quart 
Sd. 

Bread. 
4:^.  per  lb. 
Skd.         „ 

Meat. 
I^d.  per  lb. 
5id. 

Bread. 
2d.  per  lb. 

Meat. 
S^.  per  lb. 

Milk. 
Ifd.  per  quart 

lid. 


2\d. 


IH 


The  relative  values  of  the  common  articles  of 
diet  have  been  calculated,  by  the  method  described, 
with  reference  to  beef  round,  milk  and  bread  respec- 
tively. The  results  are  given  in  the  tables,  appendix 
F  (p.  178  et  seq.). 

The  results  are  also  given  in  the  form  of  pence 
per  lb.,  for  convenience  of  comparison  with  the 
average  market  prices.  For  this  purpose  animal 
products  are  compared  with  beef  round  at  Sd.  per 
lb.  and  vegetable  products  with  bread  at  l^d. 
If  vegetable  products,  e.g.  bread,  oatmeal,  beans, 
etc.,  be  compared  with  beef  at  8d.  per  lb.,  the 
results  will  be  found  to  be  three  or  four  times  greater 


156  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

than  the  market  prices  of  these  commodities.  This, 
of  course,  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that,  for 
an  equivalent  amount  of  nutrients,  these  products 
are  much  cheaper  than  beef  and  animal  foods 
generally. 

These  results  have  been  calculated  to  the  nearest 
farthing.  This  tends,  in  some  cases,  to  exaggerate 
smaU  differences  in  the  relative  values,  and  in  others 
it  obscures  them.  Results  expressed  in  this  form 
(pence  per  lb.)  are  not,  therefore,  so  satisfactory. 

Nothing  has  been  allowed  for  the  bones  in  calcu- 
lating the  relative  values  of  meat.  In  the  case  of 
legs,  ribs  and  other  pieces  of  meat  which  contain 
bone,  the  difference  between  the  calculated  and  the 
market  prices  is  partly  attributable  to  this  cause. 
In  the  case  of  shin  of  beef,  knuckle  of  veal  and 
some  other  pieces  that  are  chiefly  used  for  making 
soups  and  gravies,  the  bones  may  be  esteemed  by 
cooks  of  as  much  value  as  the  meat.  What  is  under 
consideration,  at  present,  however,  is  neither  the 
price  nor  the  special  uses  of  the  substances,  but 
the  relative  value  of  the  edible  nutrients. 

No  allowance  is  made  for  the  fibre  of  vegetable 
products,  as  it  is  assumed  to  be  indigestible  ;  all 
the  nutrients  included  are  assumed  to  be  whoUy 
and  equally  digestible. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  calculated  (relative) 
price  of  rump  steak  is  less  than  that  of  the  round 
and  almost  exactly  haK  the  actual  market  price. 
This  piece  of  meat  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flavour 
and  tenderness,  and  is  consequently  in  great  demand. 
The  price  is  therefore  higher.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  calculated  and  the  market  price  in  this, 
and  other  similar  cases,  must  be  put  down  to  tha 
difference  in  quality.     Iq  other  words,  if  Is.  Id.  be 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS  157 

paid  for  a  pound  of  rump  steak,  half  the  amount  is 
for  the  nourishment  in  the  food,  and  the  other  half 
for  the  gratification  of  the  palate. 

On  examination  of  the  tables,  it  will  be  seen  that, 
if  the  foods  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  relative 
values,  it  makes  no  difference  which  food  is  taken  as 
100  ;  the  order  is  the  same  in  each  case,  but  owing 
to  the  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  foods  the 
actual  numbers  are  very  different. 

The  relative  values  of  aU  kinds  of  meat — ^beef, 
mutton,  pork,  etc. — ^are  very  nearly  alike.  The 
chief  cause  of  difference  is  the  amount  of  refuse  in 
the  different  parts.  If  the  edible  matter  alone 
were  under  consideration  the  differences  would  be 
very  small. 

The  lean  or  fat  condition  of  the  beasts  makes  but 
little  difference  in  the  relative  values  because, 
though  protein  is  valued  at  five  times  as  much  as 
the  fat,  yet  protein  forms  only  about  a  fourth  part 
of  the  lean  tissue  ;  consequently  fat  and  lean  of 
meat  have  very  nearly  the  same  value  per  lb.  on 
this  basis.  The  relative  value  of  the  fat  meat  is, 
however,  a  little  higher. 

The  relative  value  of  vegetable  products  is  very 
variable.  That  of  oatmeal  is  nearly  equal  to  that 
of  beef  ;  wheat  flour  comes  out  markedly  lower, 
and  the  legumes,  on  the  other  hand,  considerably 
higher.  The  relative  value  of  the  prepared  starches, 
tapioca,  etc.,  are  necessarily  low. 

Substances  which  contain  a  large  amount  of 
refuse,  e.g.  nuts  which  have  thick,  heavy  shells, 
and  those  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  water, 
such  as  the  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables,  all  have  a 
low  relative  value. 

The  relative  value  of  potatoes  is  only  about  a, 


THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS  159 

fifth  of  that  of  bread,  and  though  the  price  is  much 
lower,  it  is  not  correspondingly  low.  In  other 
words,  bread  is  the  cheaper  food. 

The  price  of  cereals  and  legumes  is  very  much 
below  that  of  meat  and  most  animal  foods,  and 
having  regard  to  their  composition,  it  is  clear  that 
they  are  more  economical. 

In  the  diagram  (Fig.  11)  which  shows  the  amount 
of  nutrients  in  one  pennyworth  of  various  foods, 
the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  (fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates) are  all  reckoned  as  fat,  this  being  the 
most  convenient  method  for  purposes  of  illustration. 
The  beef  and  mutton  represent,  in  each  case,  the 
whole  side.  For  the  former,  the  average  price  of 
lOc^.  per  lb.  has  been  taken,  and  for  the  latter  9d. 
per  lb.  The  fowl  includes  the  whole  bird  at  an 
estimated  price  of  Is.  per  lb.  The  price  of  eggs 
has  been  taken  at  9d.  per  lb.  (about  12  for  a  shiUing). 
For  the  other  articles,  the  prices  per  lb.  taken  were 
as  follows  :  Codsteaks,  Qd.  ;  herring,  l^d.  ;  milk, 
l^d.  (about  ^d.  per  quart)  ;  cheese,  Sd.  ;  butter, 
Is.  ;  bread,  l^d.  ;  oatmeal,  2d.  ;  rice,  2d.  ;  lentils, 
2d.  ;  potatoes,  ^d.  ;  dried  figs,  4cZ.,  and  peanuts,  3d. 


CHAPTER   XV 

AN  APPENDIX  TO  SECTION  II, 
SHOWING  THE  COMPOSITION  AND 
RELATIVE  VALUES  OF  FOODS 

The  figures  in  Tables  A  and  B  (animal  and  vegetable 
products)  of  this  appendix  relate  to  the  composition 
of  the  foods  as  purchased ^  i.e.  including  the  refuse 
or  unedible  parts  such  as  the  bones  and  sinews  of 
meat,  shells  of  eggs,  stones  and  skins  of  fruit,  etc. 
In  all  cases,  the  proportion  of  such  refuse  is  given 
in  the  first  column  of  the  table  ;  the  composition 
of  the  edible  portion  is,  therefore,  easily  calculated 
according  to  the  formula  : — 

100p_ 
^     100- r 

Where  P  is  the  percentage  of  any  constituent  in 
the  edible  portion  which  it  is  desired  to  find  ;  p  is 
the  percentage  of  the  same  constituent  in  the  food 
as  purchased,  i.e.  the  percentage  given  in  the 
tables  ;  and  r  is  the  percentage  of  refuse,  also  given 
in  the  tables.  The  formula  may  also  be  applied  to 
the  fuel  value  in  the  same  way. 

Example.     To  find  the  percentage  of  protein  in 
the  edible  portion  of  rump  beef,  we  have — 
13-8  X  100  _  13800 
'^~  100- 20-7     793      ~   ""* 

m 


COMPOSITION  AND  RELATIVE  VALUES   161 

The  values  of  P  for  the  other  constituents  may 
be  worked  out  in  the  same  way.  They  are  as 
foUows  :  water,  56-7  ;  fat,  26-5  ;  fuel  value,  1,400 
kal. 

The  tables  have  been  compiled  from  a  number 
of  different  sources,  but  those  relating  to  the  common 
animal  and  vegetable  products  (A  and  B)  are 
chiefly  from  analyses  by  Atwater  ^  and  Bryant. 
They  are,  therefore,  uniform  and  comparable. 

The  analyses  of  the  different  kinds  and  cuts  of 
butcher's  meat  refer,  except  when  otherwise  stated, 
to  the  average  composition  of  the  joints  from  beasts 
in  the  medium  fat  condition.  Maximum  and 
minimum  results  are  also  given  in  a  few  instances 
to  show  the  variation  due  to  condition. 

The  number  of  prepared  foods,  patent  and  pro- 
prietary articles  is  already  very  large,  and  is  con- 
stantly being  added  to.  These  products  have  been 
grouped  under  the  following  heads  : — (C)  Cereal  and 
milk  foods  ;  (D)  meat  preparations — ^meat  juices, 
extracts  and  peptones;  (E)  milk  preparations 
and  miscellaneous  products.  The  lists  are  not 
exhaustive,  but  some  of  the  well  known  varieties 
of  each  kind  are  mentioned.  With  few  exceptions, 
the  analyses  of  the  prepared  foods  are  those  supplied 
by  the  makers,  attested  by  the  certificates  of  well 
known  analysts.  The  composition  of  these  articles, 
however,  is  not  absolutely  constant.  Meat  pre- 
parations are  peculiarly  liable  to  variation.  Prob- 
ably the  same  analytical  methods  have  not  been 
followed  in  every  case  ;  and  the  results,  as  com- 
municated to  the  author,  have  not  always  been 
expressed  in  precisely  the  same  terms.     The  figures 

*  Bui.  28  (revised  edition).    U.S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 

M 


162  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

given  in  Table  D  can,  therefore,  be  regarded  only 
as  approximate  and  are  not  strictly  comparable. 

The  relative  values  (Table  F)  have  been  calculated 
from  the  figures  in  Tables  A  and  B,  relating  to  the 
composition  of  the  foods,  according  to  the  method 
described  in  Chapter  XIV. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  reader,  a  table  (G) 
has  been  added,  showing  the  number  of  ounces  of 
any  constituent  in  a  pound  of  food,  corresponding 
to  the  percentages. 

A  ready  means  of  comparing  the  nutritive  values 
of  different  foods  is  illustrated  in  the  diagram  (Fig. 
12). 

The  fuel,  values  of  the  foods  are  plotted  on  the 
abscissae  (vertical  lines),  and  the  percentages  of 
protein  on  the  ordinates  (horizontal  lines) ;  the 
intersection  of  these  two  lines  for  any  given  food 
determines  the  position  of  that  substance  on  the 
chart  and  the  point  is  indicated  by  a  dot.  The 
key  to  the  numbers  is  given  on  page  164. 

The  greater  the  fuel  value  of,  a  food  the  higher 
up  will  be  its  position  on  the  page,  and  the  greater 
the  percentage  of  protein  the  further  to  the  right. 
Similar  charts  are  easily  constructed  on  squared 
paper,  and  the  nutritive  values  of  any  two  or  more 
foods  may  therefore  be  easily  compared  by  finding 
their  position  on  the  chart. 


Kal. 

2.S00 

2fi00 

2.300 

2,200 

2.100 

2.000 

1,900 

1.800 

1.700 

1.600 

I.SOO 

t.400 

1,300 

1.200 

UOQ 

1,000 

300 

800 

700 

600 

£00 

400 

300 

20C 

100 

0 


0      2       4       €       8       10      1?      14       16      15 

20     2 

2     24     26     28 

30p9rt 

10 

23. 

.^ 

,30 

i* 

29 

^/ 

6 

'i 

33 

.32 

•43 

34. 

• 

28 

• 

.« 

J' 

22 

fi-' 

II 

35 

.. 

i 

''. 



7 
• 

25 

3 

• 

4/  31^ 

20 

/?• 

12 

% 

1^3. 

'.' 

^.^ 

21. 

J^ 

.42 

6    a    10 


j2    14    16    m 
Fig.  12. 


%     ^2     24     26     2&     30perc9nt 


168 


164 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Key  to  the  Chart  (Fig.  12). 

The  numbers  affixed  to  the  dots  refer  to  the  following 
foods : — 


1. 

Beef,  fore   quarter,  me- 

22. 

Cream,  skimmed 

dium  fat. 

23. 

Cheddar  cheese. 

2. 

„     hind  quarter,  me- 

24. 

Cheshire       „ 

dium  fat. 

25. 

Dutch 

3. 

„     side,  very  lean. 

26. 

Hens'  eggs. 

4. 

„     lean. 

27. 

Wheat  flour. 

6. 

„        „     medium  fat. 

28. 

White  bread. 

6. 

„     very  fat. 

29. 

Rice. 

7. 

Veal,  side,  medium  fat. 

30. 

Oatmeal. 

8. 

Mutton,  side,  medium  fat 

31. 

Arrowroot. 

9. 

Lamb,  side,  medium  fat. 

32. 

Lentils. 

10. 

Pork,  side,  medium  fat. 

33. 

Split  peas. 

11. 

Sheep's  liver. 

34. 

Chestnuts. 

12. 

Chicken. 

35. 

Walnuts. 

13. 

Fowl. 

36. 

Turnips. 

14. 

Goose. 

37. 

Potatoes. 

15. 

Cod,  whole. 

38. 

Cabbage. 

16. 

„      steak. 

39. 

Onions. 

17. 

Herring. 

40. 

Apples. 

18. 

Sardines  in  oil. 

41. 

Bananas. 

19. 

Oysters,  edible  part. 

42. 

Rhubarb. 

20. 

Whole  milk. 

43. 

Dried  figs. 

21. 

Skim  milk. 

Appendix  A 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS,  AS  PURCHASED 
ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


Refuse 

Water. 

Protein 
NX  6-25 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Fuel* 
Value 
per  lb. 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Eal. 

Beef,  average,  med. 

fat- 

Leg    ...      . 

53-9 

31-3 

9-6 

5-3 



0-4 

405 

1-1-25 

Round     .      .      . 

7-2 

60-7 

19-0 

12.8 



1-0 

895 

1-1-53 

H  bone    .     .      . 

16-0 

49-5 

15-5 

18-0 



0-8 

1,043 

1-2-63 

Rump 

20-7 

45-0 

13-8 

20-2 

— 

0-7 

1,110 

1-3-32 

Thick  flank  .      . 

10-2 

54-0 

17-0 

19-0 



0-7 

1.115 

1-2-54 

Thin  flank    .      . 

11-4 

42-2 

13-8 

32-3 



0-7 

1,620 

1-5-31 

Loin  .... 

13-3 

52-5 

16-1 

17-5 

— 

0-9 

1,040 

1-2-47 

Ribs  .... 

20-8 

43-8 

13-9 

21-2 



0-7 

1,155 

1-3-46 

Chuck      .      .      . 

16-3 

62-6 

15-5 

15-0 



0-8 

920 

1-2-19 

Brisket    .     .      . 

23-3 

41-6 

12-0 

22-3 



0'6 

1,165 

1-4-22 

Clod  and  shoulder 

18-8 

69-4 

16-4 

4-4 



0-9 

490 

1-0-61 

Shm  .... 

36-9 

42-9 

12-8 

7-3 



0-6 

545 

1-1-29 

Neck.     .     .      . 

27-6 

45-9 

14-5 

11-3 

— 

0-7 

770 

1-1-77 

Beef  organs — 

Oxtailst  .      .     . 

29-7 

47-7 

18-5 

4-5 

— 

0-8 

535 

1-0-55 

Ox  tongues  . 

26-5 

51-8 

14-1 

6-7 

— 

0-8 

545 

1-1-08 

Kidneys  . 

19-9 

63-1 

13-7 

1-9 

— 

1-0 

335 

1-0-31 

Sweetbreads  . 



70-9 

16-8 

12-1 



1-6 

825 

1-1-63 

Tripe  J     .      .      . 

— 

86-5 

11-7 

1-2 

0-2 

0-3 

270 

1-0-23 

Heart.     .     .     . 

5-9 

53-2 

14-8 

24-7 

— 

0-9 

1,320 

1-3-79 

Liver 

7-3 

65-6 

20-2 

3-1 

2-5 

1-3 

555 

1-0-47 

Lungs 

79-7 

16-4 

3-2 

— 

1-0 

440 

1-0-44 

Suet  .... 

— 

13-7 

4-7 

81-8 

— 

0-2 

3,640 

1-39-51 

*  Calculated  from^  Buhner's  factors. 
166 


t  Canned.  %  Pickled. 


166 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Refuse 

Water. 

Protein 
NX6-25 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Fuel* 
Value 
per  lb. 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Eal. 

Veal,  average,  med. 

fat- 

Hind  knuckle 

(hock)  .      .      . 

62-7 

27-8 

7-7 

1-7 



0-4 

215 

1-0-50 

Fillet        .      .      . 

14-2 

60-1 

15-5 

7-9 



0-9 

620 

1-M5 

Loin  (whole).     . 

16-5 

57-6 

16-6 

9-0 



0-9 

690 

1-1-23 

Breast     .      .      . 

20-6 

52-7 

15-6 

11-0 



0-8 

740 

1-1-60 

Neck  (best  end)  . 

18-9 

59-5 

16-0 

5-2 



0-8 

515 

1-0-74 

Shoulder  (lean)  . 

18-3 

59-9 

16-9 

3-9 



1-0 

480 

1-0-52 

Fore  knuckle      , 

40-4 

44-1 

12-2 

3-1 



0-6 

360 

1-0-58 

Scrag 

31-5 

49-9 

13-9 

4-6 



0-7 

455 

1-0-75 

Veal  organs— 

Calves  heart 

— 

73-2 

16-8 

9-6 



l-O 

720 

1-1-29 

„      kidneys   . 

— 

75-8 

16-9 

6-4 



1-3 

585 

1-0-86 

„      liver  . 

— 

73-0 

19-0 

5-3 



1-3 

575 

1-0-63 

„      lungs 

— 

76-8 

17-1 

5-0 



M 

530 

1-0-66 

Mutton,     average, 

med.  fat — 

Leg    ...      . 

18-4 

51-2 

15-1 

14-7 



0-8 

900 

1-2-21 

Loinf. 

16-0 

42-0 

13-5 

28-3 



0-7 

1,445 

1-4-76 

Neck  (best  end)  . 

21-3 

39-9 

11-9 

26-7 

— 

0-6 

1,350 

1-5-09 

Breast      .      .      . 

9-9 

39-0 

13-8 

36-9 



0-6 

1,815 

1-6-07 

Scrag        .      .      . 

27-4 

42-1 

12-3 

17-9 



0-7 

985 

1-3-30 

Shoulder  . 

22-5 

47-9 

13-7 

15-5 



0-7 

910 

1-2-57 

Mutton  organs — 

KidneysJ 



78-5 

16-5 

3-2 



1-3 

440 

1-0-44 

Kidney  fat    . 

— 

3-4 

1-8 

95-4 

— 

0-1 

4,060 

1-120-30 

Heart       .      .      . 



69-5 

16-9 

12-6 



0-9 

845 

1-1-69 

Liver 



61-2 

23-1 

9-0 

5-0 

1-7 

905 

1-0-88 

Lungs 



75-9 

20-2 

2-8 



1-2 

495 

1-0-31 

Lamb,  average,  med. 

fat- 

Leg     ...      . 

17-4 

52-9 

15-9 

13-6 



0-9 

870 

1-1-97 

Loin  .... 

14-8 

45-3 

16-0 

24-1 



0-8 

1,315 

1-3-42 

Shoulder  .     . 

20-3 

41-3 

14-4 

23-6 



0-8 

1,265 

1-3-65 

Breast      .      .      . 

19-1 

45-5 

15-4 

19-1 



0-8 

1,090 

1-2-81 

Neck.      .      .      . 

17-7 

46-7 

14-6 

20-4 



0-8 

1,135 

1-3-17 

Pork,  fresh,  average. 

med.  fat — 

Leg    ...     . 

10-7 

48-0 

13-5 

25-9 

— 

0-8 

1,345 

1-4-35 

*  Calciilated  from  Riibner's  factors, 
t  Not  including  kidney  or  kidney  fat. 


X  Not  including  fat. 


COMPOSITION  AND  EELATIVE  VALUES     167 


Refuse 

Water. 

Protein 
NX  6-25 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Fuel* 
Value 
per  lb. 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Pork,  iresh.  (contd.) 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Kal. 

Hind  loin      .      . 

19-7 

41-8 

13-4 

24-2 

— 

0-8 

1,270 

1-4-11 

Fore  loin.      .      . 

18-1 

41-8 

14-1 

25-5 

— 

0-9 

1,340 

I-4'IO 

Hand.      .      .      . 

12-4 

44-9 

12-0 

29-8 

— 

0-7 

1,480 

1-5-64 

Belly.      .      .      . 

6-2 

29-5 

6-5 

56-6 

— 

0-4 

2,510 

1-19-77 

Head       .     .      . 

68-4 

13-8 

4-1 

13-8 

— 

0-2 

660 

1-7-64 

Lard  (refined)     . 

— 

— 

— 

100-0 

— 

— 

4,220 

— 

Povk  organs — 
Kidneys  . 



77-8 

15-5 

4-8 



1-2 

490 

1-0-70 

Liver  .... 

— 

71-4 

21-3 

4-5 

1-4 

1-4 

615 

1-0-48 

Heart       .      .      . 

— 

75-6 

17-1 

6-3 

— 

1-0 

585 

1-0-83 

Pork,  cured— 

Bacon,  smoked, 

lean 

17'0 

26-5 

13-0 

35-5 

— 

8-7 

1,740 

1-6-19 

„             „     fat 

7-7 

17-4 

9-1 

62-2 

— 

4-1 

2,795 

1-15-51 

Ham,         „   lean 

11-5 

47-2 

17-5 

18-5 

— 

4-9 

1,105 

1-2-39 

„             „     fat 

3-4 

25-2 

12-4 

53-7 

— 

3.5 

2,495 

1-9-83 

Beef— 

Fore  quarter,  med. 

fat        .      .      . 

18-7 

49-1 

14-5 

17-5 

— 

0-7 

1,010 

1-2-74 

Hind    quarter. 

med.  fat     . 

15-7 

50-4 

15-4 

18-3 

— 

0-7 

1,060 

1-2-69 

Side,  very  lean    . 

26-0 

54-0 

17-0 

2-7 

— 

0-8 

430 

1-0-36 

„    lean  . 

19-5 

54-1 

15-5 

10-6 

— 

0-7 

735 

1-1-55 

„  med.  fat,  max. 

21-8 

53-1 

15-8 

21-9 

— 

0-8 

1,185 

1-3-73 

„           „       min. 

15-5 

44-2 

13-9 

12-7 

— 

0-7 

830 

1-2-07 

„           „     avge. 

17-4 

49-4 

14-8 

18-1 

— 

0-7 

1,040 

1-2-77 

„   very  fat 

13-2 

41-5 

14-0 

31-6 

— 

0-6 

1,595 

1-5-12 

Veai— 

Fore  quarter 

24-5 

54-2 

15-1 

6-0 

— 

0-7 

535 

1-0-90 

Hind      „ 

20-7 

56-2 

16-2 

6-6 

— 

0-8 

580 

1-0-92 

Side,  with  kidney, 

fat  and  tallow. 

22-6 

56-2 

15-6 

6-3 

— 

0-8 

555 

1-0-91 

Mutton — 

Fore  quarter 

21-2 

41-6 

12-3 

24-5 

— 

0-7 

1,265 

1-4-52 

Hind      „ 

17-2 

45-4 

13-8 

23-2 

— 

0-7 

1,235 

1-3-82 

Side + tallow.      . 

18-1 

45-4 

13-0 

23-1 

— 

0-7 

1,215 

1-4-03 

„    —tallow.     . 

19-3 

43-3 

13-0 

24-0 

— 

0-8 

1,255 

1-4-19 

Lamh — 

Fore  quarter 

18-8 

44-7 

14-9 

21-0 

— 

0-8 

1,165 

1-3-20 

Hind      „ 

15-7 

51-3 

16-6 

16.1 

— 

0-9 

985 

1-2-21 

Side-tallow.     . 

19-3 

47-0 

14-1 

18-7 

— 

0-8 

1,055 

1-3-01 

*  Calculated  from  Rubner's  factors. 


168 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Eefuae  Water 

Protein    p.^ 
•NX6-25   *^**' 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

Fuel 

.  Value 

per  lb 

'  Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent 

.    Fal 

Pork— 

Side+lard    and 

other  fat  . 

11.2 

26-1 

8-3 

54-8 



0-4 

2,465 

1-14-99 

„    —lard    and 

kidney     . 

11-5 

30-4 

8-0 

49-0 



0-5 

2,215 

1-13-90 

Poultry— 

Chickens 

41-6 

43-7 

12-8 

1-4 



0-7 

296 

1-0-25 

Fowls      .     .     . 

25-9 

47-1 

13-7 

12-3 



0-7 

776 

1-2-04 

Turkeys  .      .      . 

22-7 

42-4 

16-1 

18-4 

— 

0-8 

1,076 

1-2-59 

Geese. 

17-6 

38-5 

13-4 

29-8 



0-7 

1,505 

1-1-60 

Fish,  fresh,  whole— 

Haddockf     .      . 

61-0 

40-0 

8-4 

0-2 

— 

0-6 

165 

1-0-05 

Ck)d    .     .     .     . 

52-5 

38-7 

8-4 

0-2 



0-6 

166 

1-0-05 

Hakef     .     .     . 

52-5 

39-5 

7-3 

0-3 

— 

0-5 

150 

1-0-09 

Flounder. 

61-5 

32-6 

5-4 

0-3 



0-5 

116 

1-0-13 

Herring   . 

42-6 

41-7 

11-2 

3-9 

— 

0-9 

376 

1-0-79 

Mackerel       .     . 

44-7 

40-4 

10-2 

4-2 



0-7 

365 

1-0-93 

Turbot    .      .     . 

47-7 

37-3 

7-7 

7-5 



0-7 

460 

1-2-21 

Salmon    . 

34-9 

40-9 

15-3 

8-9 



0-9 

660 

1-1-32 

Fish,  fresh,  portions 

Cod  steaks    . 

9-2 

72-4 

17-0 

0-5 



1-0 

335 

1-0-07 

Hahbut  steaks    . 

17-7 

61-9 

15-3 

4.4 



0-9 

470 

1-0-66 

Skate,lobeofbody 

51-0 

40-2 

8-9 

0-7 

— 

0-6 

196 

1-0-18 

Fishy  cured — 

Cod,  salted    .      . 

24-9 

40-2 

19-0 

0-4 

: 

18-5 

316 

1-0-05 

Haddock,  smoked 

32-2 

49-2 

15-8 

0-1 

— 

2-4 

306 

1-0-01 

fiUet 



725 

23-3 

0-2 

_ 

3-6 

440 

1-0-01 

Herring,  smoked 

44-4 

19-2 

20-6 

8-8 



7-4 

760 

1-0-97 

Salmon,  canned  . 

14-2 

56-8 

19-5 

7-5 



2-0 

680 

1-0-87 

Sardines,     „ 

JS-O 

63-6 

23-7 

12-1 



5-3 

950 

1-1-16 

*f           t*       • 

— 

62-3 

23-0 

19-7 



5-6 

1,260 

1-1-94 

SheUFish— 

Clams,  in  shell    . 

41-9 

49-9 

5-0 

0-6 

M 

1-5 

140 

1-0-49 

Mussels,  in  shell 

46-7 

44-9 

4-6 

0-6 

2-2 

1-0 

160 

1-0-77 

Oysters,  in  shell 

81-4 

16-1 

1-2 

0-2 

0-7 

0-4 

46 

1-0-96 

Lobsters,  whole  . 

61-7 

30-7 

5-9 

0-7 

0-2 

0-8 

140 

1-0-30 

Crabs,  whole.     . 

52-4 

36-7 

7-9 

0-9 

0-6 

1-6 

195 

1-0-33 

Crayfish,  abdomen 

whole  .      .      . 

86-6 

10-9 

2-1 

0-1 

0-1 

0-2 

45 

1-0-16 

♦  Calculated  from  Riibner's  factors, 
t  Entrails  (about  6  per  cent.)  removed. 


t  Oil. 


COMPOSITION  AND  RELATIVE  VALUES     169 


Refuse 

Water 

Protein 
NX  6-25 

Pat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ash 

Fuel* 
Value 
per  lb 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Kal. 

Dairy  Produce- 

Cow's  milk,  whole 

Maximum 



90-3 

6-4 

6-5 

6-1 

1-2 

— 

— 

Minimum  . 

— 

80-3 

2-1 

Alb.f 

1-7 

2-1 

0-4 

— 

— 

Average     . 

87-3 

0-5 

Cas. 

3-0 

Alb.  J 

3-6 

4-9 

0-7 

308 

1-3-73 

Mother's  milk 

— 

87-4 

1-3 

3-8 

6-2 

0-3 

318 

1-6-44 

average     .     . 

Cas. 
1-0 

Goat's  milk  .     . 



85-7 

4-3 

4-8 

4-5 

0-8 

366 

1-3-58 

Skim  milk  (cow's) 

— 

90-6 

3-4 

0-3 

51 

0-7 

170 

1-1-70 

Buttermilk    .     . 

— 

91-0 

3-0 

0-5 

4-8 

0-7 

165 

1-1-97 

Whey       .      .      . 



93-0 

1-0 

0-3 

5-0 

0-7 

125 

1-5-68 

C5ream,  skimmed 



68-8 

3-8 

22-7 

4-2 

0-5 

1,106 

1-14-66 

,.      separated 

thick- 

maximum 



54-8 



46-4 

§8-5 

— 

— 

— 

minimum 



46-7 



38-1 

§4-2 

— 

— 

— 

average  . 

— 

61-7 

— 

42-0 

§6-3 

— 

1,889 

— 

Cream,  separated, 

hght— 

maximum 

— 

83-3 

— 

21-6 

§9-3 

— 

— 

— 

minimum 



70-5 



8-6 

§7-2 

— 

— 

— 

average  . 



77-9 



13-9 

§8-2 

— 

736 

— 

Butter     .      .      . 



11-0 

1-0 

85-0 

— 

3-0 

3,605 

1-192-95 

Cheese— 

American,  pale  . 



31-6 

28-8 

35-9 

0-3 

3-4 

2,065 

1-2-84 

red    . 



28-6 

29-6 

38-5 

— 

3-5 

2,165 

1-2-95 

Cheddar  . 



27-4 

27-7 

36-8 

4-1 

4-0 

2,145 

1-3-02 

Cheshire  . 



37-1 

26-9 

30-7 

0-9 

4-4 

1,810 

1-2-63 

Dutch      . 



72-0 

20-9 

1-0 

4-3 

1-8 

510 

1-0-31 

>»          • 



41-8 

31-9 

10-6 

— 

6-3 

1,040 

1-0-75 

»> 



37-6 

29-5 

22-5 

— 

6-5 

1,498 

1-1-73 

StUton     . 



21-2 

26-3 

45-8 

— 

2-9 

2,421 

1-3-95 

Gorgonzola 

— 

40-3 

27-7 

26-1 

— 

6-3 

1,616 

1-2-10 

*  Calculated  from  Rubner 

'8  factors 

. 

t  Total  protein  3-6. 

X       „           M       2-3. 

§  Tota 

1  non- 

fatty  sc 

Uds. 

_-. 

170 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Refuse 

Water. 

Protein 
NX  6-25 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel* 

Ash.  Value 

Iper  lb. 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Eal. 

Eggs— 

Hen's.      .      .      . 

11-2 

65*6 

ll-9t 

9-3 



0-9 

635 

1-1-77 

Turkey's       .      - 

13-8 

63-5 

11-6 

9-7 

— 

0-8 

625 

1-1-89 

Duck's    .      .      . 

13-7 

60-9 

11-5 

12-5 



0-8 

751 

1-2-47 

Goose's  .      .      . 

14-2 

59-7 

11.5 

12-3       — 

0-9 

733 

1-2-43 

*  Calculated  from  Riibner's  factors, 
t  Too  low  ?     By  difference  13-1. 


Appendix  B 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOODS  AS  PURCHASED  : 

VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS 


Refuse. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

*  Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fibre. 

Asli. 

Fuel 
value 
per  lb. 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Kal. 

Wheat 

Dressed  grain  . 

13-5 

12-4 

1-7 

67-9 

2-6 

1-8 

1,565 

1-5-78 

White  flour      . 

— 

12-4 

11-2 

1-0 

74.9 

0-2 

0-5 

1,645 

1-7-00 

Whole- meal 

— 

11-4 

13-8 

1-9 

71-9 

0-9 

1-0 

1,675 

1-5-52 

White  bread     . 

— 

35-3 

9-2 

1-3 

53-1 

0-5 

M 

1,215 

1-6-09 

Brown  bread 

(Graham)      . 

— 

35-7 

8-9 

1-8 

52-1 

M 

1-5 

1,210 

1-5-98 

Macaroni    . 

— 

10-3 

13-4 

0-9 

74-1 

— 

1-3 

1,665 

1-5-69 

Vermicelli  .      . 

— 

11-0 

10-9 

2-0 

72-0 

— 

4-1 

1,625 

1-7-02 

Barley— 

Pot  barley 

— 

14-4 

8-5 

1-7 

73-3 

0-9 

1-2 

1,593 

1-9-08 

Pearl  barley     . 

— 

11-5 

8-5 

M 

77-8 

0-3 

M 

1,650 

1-9-45 

Bice- 

Whole, -polished 

— 

12-3 

8-0 

0-3 

79-0 

0-2 

0-4 

1,630 

1-9-96 

Ground  rice 

— 

11-5 

8-1 

0-3 

79-4 

0-2 

0-5 

1,640 

1-9-89 

Cornflour t  (Brit.) 
Oats— 
Oatmeal 

— 

13-0 

2-1 

— 

84-6 

— 

0-3 

1,612 

1-40-29 



7-3 

16-1 

7-2 

67-5 

0-9 

1-9 

1,860 

1-5-09 

Rolled  oats . 



7-7 

16-7 

7-3 

66-2 

1-3 

2-1 

1,850 

1-4.95 

Maize — 

Whole-mealJ   . 

— 

15-0 

8-2 

3-8 

68-7 

1-9 

1-4 

1,610 

1-9-43 

Hominy 

— 

11-8 

8-3 

0-6 

79-0 

0-9 

0-3 

1,650 

1-9-68 

Cornflour    . 



12-6 

7-1 

1-3 

78-4 

0-9 

0-6 

1,645 

1-11-45 

„    §Oswego 

— 

10-6 

2-1 

— 

86-8 

— 

0-5 

1,650 

1-41-31 

Prepared  Starches 

Arrowroot  . 

— 

2-3 

— 

— 

97-5 

— 

0-2 

1,815 

— 

Tapioca 

— 

11-4 

0-4 

0-1 

88-0 

0-1 

0-1 

1,650 

— 

Sago      .      .      . 

— 

12-2 

9-0 

0-4 

78-1 

— 

0-3 

1,635 

— 

»    II   ■      .      . 

— 

15-2 

— 

— 

84-6 

— 

0-1 

1,570 

— 

*  Including  fibre.  f  Bell,  Chemistry  of  Food,  compare  maize, 

t  Used  as  fodder.  §  Bell,  Chemistry  of  Food.     Compare  rice. 

II  Bell,  Chemistry  of  Food. 

171 


172 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Refuse. 

Water 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

•  Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fibre. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 
per  lb. 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Kal. 

Legumes,  t  dry — 

Beans    . 

— 

13-6 

231 

2-3 

63-6 

3-9 

3-6 

1,523 

1-2-54 

Peas      .      .      . 

— 

14-3 

22-6 

1-7 

53-2 

6-6 

2-7 

1,480 

1-2-62 

Lentils  . 

— 

12-5 

24-8 

1-9 

64-8 

3-6 

2-5 

1,560 

1-2-38 

Nuts,  in  shell — 

Almonds     . 

46-0 

2-7 

11-6 

30-2 

9.5 



M 

1,660 

1-6-78 

Filberts       .      . 

521 

1-8 

7-5 

31-4 

6-2 



M 

1,576 

1-10-33 

Peanuts 

24-5 

6-9 

19-5 

29-1 

18-5 



1-5 

1,935 

1-4-33 

Cocoanuts  % 

48-8 

7-2 

2-9 

25-9 

14-3 



0-9 

1,413 

1-25-20 

Chestnuts   .      . 

24-0 

4-5 

8-1 

6-3 

66.4 



1-7 

1,425 

1-8-45 

Wahiuts      .      . 

74-1 

0-6 

7-2 

14-6 

3-0 

— 

0-5 

805 

1-6-02 

„       kernels 

— 

2-5 

27-6 

56-3 

11-7 

1-7 

1-9 

3,105 

1-5-06 

Brazil-nuts . 

49-6 

2-6 

8-6 

33-7 

3-5 



2-0 

1,655 

1-9-30 

Fresh  Vegetables— 

Turnips       .     . 

30-0 

62-7 

0-9 

0-1 

5-7 

1-3 

0-6 

125 

1-6-58 

Carrots        .      . 

20-0 

70-6 

0-9 

0-2 

7-4 

M 

0-9 

160 

1-8-73 

Beetroot     .      . 

20-0 

70-0 

1-3 

0-1 

7-7 

0-9 

0-9 

170 

1-6-09 

Parsnips 

20-0 

66-4 

1-3 

0-4 

10-8 

2-5 

M 

240 

1-9-00 

Radishes     . 

30-0 

64-3 

0-9 

0-1 

4-0 

0-7 

0-7 

95 

1-4-69 

Potatoes     . 

20-0 

62-6 

1-8 

0-1 

14-7 

0-4 

0-8 

310 

1-8-29 

Artichokes  . 

— 

79-6 

2-6 

0-2 

16-7 

0-8 

1-0 

365 

1-6-59 

Onions  . 

10-0 

78-9 

1-4 

0-3 

8-9 

0-8 

0-5 

205 

1-6-84 

Leeks    .      .      . 

16-0 

78-0 

1-0 

0-4 

5-0 

0-6 

0-6 

130 

1-5-91 

Cabbages    . 

15-0 

77-7 

1-4 

0-2 

4-8 

M 

0-9 

125 

1-3-76 

Spinach 

— 

92-3 

2-1 

0-3 

3-2 

0-9 

21 

110 

1-1-88 

Lettuces 

15-0     80-5 

1-0 

0-2 

2-5 

0-7 

0-8 

75 

1-2-95 

Celery    .      .      . 

20-0 

75-6 

0-9 

0-1 

2-6 

0-8 

70 

1-3-14 

Cauliflower.      . 

_ 

92-3 

1-8 

0-5 

4.7 

1-0 

0-7 

140 

1-3-24 

Green  peas.      . 



74-6 

7-0 

0-5 

16-9 

1-7 

1-0 

465 

1-2-52 

Butter  beans   . 

50-0 

29-4 

4.7 

0-3 

14-6 

1-0 

370 

1-3-25 

Lima  beans      . 

55-0 

30-8 

3-2 

0-3 

9-9 

0-8 

0-8 

255 

1-3-30 

Tomatoes   . 

— 

94-3 

0-9 

0-4 

3-9 

0-6 

0-6 

105 

1-5-34 

Cucumbers 

16-0 

8M 

0-7 

0-2 

2-6 

0-7 

0-4 

170 

1-4-36 

Mushrooms 

— 

88-1 

3-6 

0-4 

6-8 

0-8 

1-2 

210 

1-2-20 

*  Including  fibre,     f  Winter  Blythe,  Composition  and  Analysis  of  Food, 
X  Including  milk  and  shell. 


COMPOSITION  AND  RELATIVE  VALUES     173 


Refuse. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

.•Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fibre. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
\ralue 
per  lb. 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio. 

Fresh  Fruits— 
Bananas     .      . 

Per 
cent. 

35-0 

Per 
cent. 

48-9 

Per 
cent. 

0-8 

Per 

cent. 

0-4 

Per 
cent. 

14-3 

Per 

cent. 

1-0 

Per 
cent 

0-6 

Kal. 
300 

1-1901 

Apples  .     .     . 
Pears     .     .     . 

25-0 
10-0 

63-3 
76-0 

0-3 
0-5 

0-3 
0-4 

10-8 
12-7 

1-2 

2-7 

0-3 
0-4 

220 
260 

1-38-27 
1-27-21 

Plums   .     .     . 
Cherries      .     . 

5-0 
5-0 

74-5 

76-8 

0-9 
0-9 

0-8 

19-1 
15-9 

0-2 

0-5 
0-6 

370 
345 

1-21-22 
1-19-68 

Apricots      .     . 
Peaches      .      . 

6-0 
18-0 

79-9 
73-3 

1-0 
0-6 

0-1 

12-6 

7-7 

3-6 

0-5 
0-3 

255 
155 

1-12-60 
1-16-85 

Oranges      .      . 
Lemons.     .     . 

27-0 
30-0 

63-4 
62-5 

0-6 
0-7 

0-1 
0-5 

8-5 
5-9 

M 

0-4 
0-4 

170 
145 

1-14-54 
1-10-05 

Raspberries      . 
Strawberries     . 

5-0 

84-1 
85-9 

1-7 

0-9 

1-0 
0-6 

12-6 

7-0 

1-4 

0-6 
0-6 

310 
176 

1-8-75 
1-9-29 

Watermelons    . 

59-4 

37-5 

0-2 

0-1 

2-7 

— 

0-1 

60 

1-14-63 

Rhubarb     .      . 

40-0 

66-6 

0-4 

0-4 

2-2 

M 

0-4 

65 

1-7-77 

Dried  Fruits— 
Figs.     .     .     . 
Dates    .      .      . 
Prunes  . 
Raisins'. 
Currants     . 

10-0 
15-0 
10-0 

18-8 
13-8 
19-0 
13-1 
17-2 

4-3 
1-9 
1-8 
2-3 
2-4 

0-3 
2-5 

3-0 
1-7 

74-2 
70-6 
62-2 
68-5 
74-2 

— 

2-4 
1-2 
2-0 
3-1 
4-5 

1,475 
1,450 
1,190 
1,445 
1,495 

1-17-41 
1-40-14 
1-34-55 
1-32-74 
1-32-52 

Apples  .      .     5 
Pears     .     .     . 

— 

28-1 
16-5 

1-6 

2-8 

22 

5-4 

66-1 

72-9 

3-7 

2-0 
2-4 

1,350 
1,636 

1-44-43 
1-30-41 

Apple  jelly     .      . 
Damson  jam  .     . 
Marmalade     . 

— 

40-8 
49-6 
19-6 

0-2 
0-6 
0-9 

E 

53-8 
38-0 
67-8 

2-4 
3-4 

0*2 
0-5 
0-5 

1,004 

716 

1,228 

— 

Honey      .     .     . 

— 

17-4 

0-1 

0-4 

81-9 

— 

0-2 

1,525 

— 

Including  fibre. 


Appendix  C 
CEREAL  AND  MILK  PREPARATIONS 


: 

Carbo- 

1 

Ph 

i 

hydrates. 

* 

1 

1 

aemarks. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Allenbury's — 

No.  1  Milk  food     . 

1-8 

10-7 

16-8 

66-6 

— 

4-1 

Made  from  milk. 

No.  2  Milk  food     . 

2-2 

10-2 

14-9 

68-8 



3-8 

'>        >f         >> 

No.  3  Malted  Food 

3-0 

10-2 

1-5 

251 

60-0 

0-6 

A  partly  malted 
wheat  to  be  used 
with  milk. 

Benger's  Food     .      . 

5-3 

12-2 

1-0 

3-3 

77-2 

1-0 

A  malted  wheat 
flour,  peptonizes 
milk  used  in  pre- 
paration. 

Cheltine'8— 

Milk  food  No.  1     . 

5-2 

9-6 

9-8 

71-2 

" 

4-2 

42  per  cent,  lactose, 
no  cane  sugar  or 
starch. 

Milk  food  No.  2     . 

6-2 

10-9 

9-6 

69-3 

" 

4-0 

32  per  cent,  maltose, 
no  cane  sugar  or 
starch. 

Malted  Infants'  food 

3-6 

14-6 

43 

35-4 

40-5 

1-6 

A      partly      malted 

No.  3 

cereal  flour. 

Maltose  food     .      . 

5-8 

7-4 

0-6 

83-4 

— 

2-8 

Completely  malted. 

Coomb's  malted  food  , 

6-0 

10-6 

0-9 



81-7 

0-8 

Contains  malt. 

Fairchild's  milk  pow- 
der 
Frame  Food  No.  1    . 

5-5 

1-2 

— 

92  0 

— 

1-2 

Chiefly  lactose. 

2-1 

12-4 



82-9 



2-6 

Completely  malted. 

,,     No.  2    . 

1-4 

16-3 

— 

30-3 

50-1 

1-9 

Cooked  wheat  flour, 
plus     sugar     and 

Frame  food  extract 

174 


COMPOSITION  AKD  RELATIVE  VALUES    175 


Carbo- 

1 

.3 

1 

hydrates. 

i 

^• 

Eemarks. 

^ 

£ 

02 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Frame  Food  extract. 

9-6 

21-4 

34-9 

13-0 

10-7 

Made  from  wheat 
bran ;  contains  3-7 
per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid. 

Horlick's  malted  milk 

3-2 

16-2 

8-8 

67-6 

~ 

4-2 

A  dry  powder  made 
from  wheat  flour, 
malt  and  fresh  milk 

Hovis    Babies'    Food 

No.  1 

3-7 

7-7 

0-2 

86-4 

— 

1-8 

— 

„        „        ,,  No.  2 

2-4 

5-8 

0-1 

82-4 

7-5 

1-7 

— 

Maltico  Food       .      . 

2-5 

16-0 

11-7 

— 

66-2 

3-6 

Malted  cereals  and 
milk. 

Mellin's  Food      .     . 

3-5 

9-1 

0-1 

83-7 

" 

3-3 

A  completely  malted 
cereal  extract,  to 
be  used  with  milk. 

Muffler's  Food      .      . 

5-6 

14-3 

5-8 

27-4 

44-4 

2-4 

Desiccated     milk, 
white  of  egg,  wheat 
flour  and  lactose. 

Neaves' Milk  Food    . 

2-4 

20-0 

26-0 

47-1 

4-5 

Diluted  with  7  to  8 
parts  of  water,  the 
mixture  resembles 
human  milk. 

Infants'  Food 

5-1 

14-7 

— 

75 

•5 

1-2 

A  cereal  flour  to  be 
used  with  milk. 

Opmus  Food 

10-9 

9-1 

1-0 

78 

•6 

0-4 

A  granulated  wheat 
flour. 

Ridge's  Food 

4-3 

9-4 

1-6 

83 

•7 

0-9 

A  cooked  cereal  flour. 

Savory  &  Moore's 

5-3 

10-8 

M 

27-8 

54-1 

0-9 

Wheat    flour,    malt, 

Food 

glucose    and    cane 

sugar. 

Appendix  D 
MEAT  PREPARATIONS* 


Protein 

Nitro- 

Nitrogen 

Water. 

and 

Extrac- 
tives 

Free 

Ash. 

Gelatin. 

Substance. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Meat  Juice— 

Armour's  Beef  Juice     . 

74-4 

8-1 

9-5 



7-5 

Bovril 

62-0 

7-2 

14-0 

20-7 

5-9 

Brand's        „         „        . 

60-7 

6-1 

10-1 

1-3 

10-0 

Valentine's  „         „ 

60-3 

0-6 

29-2 



11-3 

Weyth's 

44-9 

380 

— 

— 

171 

Meat  Extracts— 

Armour's  Extract  of  Beef 

24-3 

16-1 

20-5 

20-1 

19-0 

Bovril 

21-2 

16-7 

16-1 

29-2 

16-8 

Invalid's  Bovril. 

21-5 

31-4 

32-6 



16-2 

Bouillon  Fleet   .      .      . 

62-0 

11-8 

9-9 

3-9 

12-5 

Brand's  Essence  of  Beef 

89-2 

6-7 

4.4 

0-1 

1-4 

Liebig's  Extract  (Lemco) 

19-3 

49-8 

10-7 

— 

20-2 

0x0 

41-6 

36-0 

4-5 



18-0 

Home-made  beef  tea  . 

96-0 

1-5 

0-6 

1-0 

0-7 

COMMERCIAL  PEPTONES 


Water      Peptones. 


Albu- 
moaes. 


Extrac- 
tives, 
etc. 


Ash. 


Armour's  Wine  of  Peptone 
Benger's  Peptonized  Beef 

Jelly 

Camrick's  Liquid  Pepton- 

oids 

Fairchild's  Panopeptone  . 


Per 
cent. 
83-0 

89-7 

80-1 
810 


Per 
cent. 


4-7 
4-6 


Per 
cent. 


•0 


2-4 
2-3 


Per 
cent. 
12-9 

2-3 

12-Ot 
150t 


Per 

cent. 

11 

0-9 

1-0 


♦  Variable.  f  Soluble  carbohydrates. 

17« 


Appendix  E 

MILK  PREPARATIONS  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 
PRODUCTS 


Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Remarks. 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Condensed  milk — 

Unsweetened     . 

69-2 

8-7 

8-1 

9-9 

1-6 

Condensed  2*2  times. 

Sweetened    . 

25-7 

8-5 

10-6 

53-8 

1-3 

Condensed  2*3  times 
and  42  per  cent. 
ca,ne  sugar  added. 

„        skimmed 

30-7 

12-2 

3-1 

52-1 

2-1 



Desiccated  milk    .      . 



27-5 

28-3 

38-6 

5-5 

Calculated. 

Lacvitum 

5-3 

28-0 

29-4 

31-3 

6-0 



Plasmon     .... 

8-5 

75-0 

0-2 

8-9 

7-4 



Biogene      .... 

10-0 

78-7 

1-6 

4-0 

4-7 

— 

Casumen     .... 

7-0 

86-5 

3-6 

— 

2-9 

— 

Gelatin        .... 

13-6 

91-4* 

0-1 

21 

Fuel  value  1705  kal. 

Isinglass     .... 

19-0 

89-3t 

1-6 

— 

2-0 

„         »     1730    „ 

Calvesfoot  jelly     . 

77-6 

4-3 

— 

17-4 

0-7 

,.         »       405   „ 

Desiccated  eggs     . 



5M 

39-9 

_ 

9-0 

Calculated. 

t    

5-9 

48-1 

40-5 

— 

5-3 

As  sold. 

Egg  substitute 

7-0 

18-7 

3-4 

70 

•9 



§Custard  powder  (a)  . 

13-7 

0-6 

— 

84-5 

0-4 

— 

»       (&)   . 

8-2 

5-0 

53-9 

26-7 

Ash,  baking  soda; 
6  per  cent,  tar- 
taric acid. 

♦  Too  high  ;  by  difference  84-2. 
X  Leach,  Food  Inspection. 


t  Too  high;  by  difference  77-4. 
§  Food  and  Sanitation,  1893. 


Appendix  F 
THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS 


Number 

Value  compared  with 

Average 
Market 
Price 

Food. 

of 
Units.* 

tBeef 

Milk 

Bread 

Beef  at 

as  100. 

as  100. 

as  100. 

Sd.perlb. 

per  lb. 

Rel.  val. 

Rel.  val. 

Eel.  val. 

Pence. 

Pence. 

Bee/— 

Leg,  including  bone  . 

213-2 

52 

239 

88 

^L 

5 

„    edible  matter     . 

461-6 

107 

517 

191 

8i 

7-8 

Round      .... 

431-2 

100 

483 

178 

8 

9-lOi 

H  bone     . 

3820 

89 

428 

157 

^l 

6-7 

Rump 

356-8 

83 

400 

147 

H 

11-14 

Thick  flank 

416-0 

96 

466 

172 

n 

9-10 

Thin  flank 

405-2 

94 

454 

167 

n 

5-6 

Loin    .      . 

392  0 

91 

439 

161 

u 

11-12 

Ribs    .      . 

362-8 

84 

406 

150 

t6i 

9-11 

Brisket     . 

3292 

76 

369 

136 

6 

7 

Neck  .     . 

3352 

78 

375 

138 

m 

5 

Side,  very  lean 

350-8 

81 

393 

144 

H 

— 

„      lean . 

352-4 

82 

395 

145 

6f 

— 

„      med.  fat 

368-4 

85 

413 

152 

6| 

— 

„      very  fat 

406-4 

94 

455 

168 

7i 

— 

Ox  tails    .      . 

3880 

90 

434 

160 

t7i 

— 

Ox  tongues    . 

308-8 

72 

345 

127 

a 

— 

Kidneys    . 

281-6 

65 

315 

113 

5i 

12 

Sweetbreads  . 

384-4 

89 

430 

158 

!t 

— 

Tripe  .      .      . 

238-8 

55 

266 

99 

H 

6 

Suet    .     .      . 

327-2 

76 

366 

135 

6 

8 

Veal— 

Hock  .      .      . 

160-8 

37 

180 

66 

^^ 

6 

FiUet  .      .      . 

341-6 

79 

383 

146 

6i 

13 

Loin,  whole    . 

368-0 

85 

412 

151 

6i 

9-10 

Breast 

356-0 

83 

399 

147 

H 

H 

Neck,  best  end 

340-8 

79 

382 

140 

6i 

10-12 

Shoulder  . 

353-6 

82 

395 

146 

m 

8 

Fore  knuckle. 

256-4 

59 

287 

106 

J4| 

6 

Scrag  .... 

296-4 

68 

332 

122 

JSi 

6 

*  This  column  may  be  road 
t  Roxmd. 


'  Value  compared  with  sugar  as  100.' 
J  Add  allowance  for  bone. 
178 


COMPOSITION  AND  RELATIVE  VALUES     179 


Number 

of 
Units.* 

Value  compared  with 

Average 

Food. 

tBeef 

Milk 

Bread 

Beef  at 

Market 
Price 

as  100. 

as  100. 

as  100. 

Srf.perlb 

per  lb. 

Rel.  val. 

Rel.  val. 

Rel.  val. 

Pence. 

Pence. 

Mutton— 

Leg 

360-8 

84 

403 

149 

6J 

10 

Loinf 

383-2 

89 

429 

158 

7 

12 

Neck,  best  end    .      . 

344-8 

80 

385 

142 

§6^ 

10 

Breast       .... 

423-6 

98 

474 

175 

n 

4 

Scrag 

317-6 

74 

356 

131 

§6 

6-7 

Shoulder  .... 

336-0 

78 

376 

139 

§6i 

8-9 

Kidneys    .... 

342-8 

79 

384 

141 

6i 

12 

Heart .      .      .      .      . 

388-4 

90 

435 

160 

n 

6 

Lungs       .... 

415-2 

96 

465 

171 

n 

4 

Liver  

503-0 

114 

563 

208 

9 

5 

Suet 

3816 

88 

427 

157 

7 

5 

Lamb — 

Leg 

372  4 

86 

417 

154 

7 

12 

Loin 

416-4 

96 

466 

172 

7| 

11 

Shoulder  .... 

382-4 

89 

428 

157 

7 

11 

Breast       .... 

384-4 

89 

430 

159 

7 

7 

Neck 

373-6 

87 

417 

154 

7 

H 

Pork,  fresh- 

Leg      

373-6 

87 

417 

154 

7 

9 

Hind  loin. 

364-8 

85 

409 

151 

6f 

10^ 

Fore  loin  .... 

384-0 

89 

430 

158 

7 

8i 

Hand 

359-2 

83 

402 

148 

6| 

7 

Belly 

356-4 

83 

399 

147 

H 

8| 

Lard  II 

4000 

93 

448 

165 

7|- 

7 

Bacon,  smoked,  lean     . 

402  0 

93 

450 

166 

n 

16-12 

»           „         fat 

430-8 

100 

481 

178 

8 

Poultry— 

Chickens  .... 

261-6 

61 

293 

108 

5 

12-15 

Fowls 

3232 

75 

362 

133 

6 

10-12 

Turkeys    .... 

395-6 

92 

443 

163 

n 

12 

Geese 

387-2 

90 

434 

160 

7 

8 

Fish,  fresh,  whole- 

Haddock  If     .      .      . 

168-8 

39 

189 

70 

3 

6 

Cod 

168-8 

39 

189 

70 

3 

4 

Hake  If     .      .      .      . 

147-2 

34 

165 

61 

2f 

4 

Flounder  .... 

109-2 

25 

122 

46 

2^ 

4 

♦  This  column  may  be  read  "  Value  compared  with  sugar  as  100." 
t  Round.         %  Without  kidney  and  suet.         §  Add  allowance  for  bono. 
II  Vegetable  oils  and  all  pure  fats,  same  as  lard  except  in  regard  to  price. 
T[  EntraUa  removed. 


180 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Food. 


Fishy  fresh  {conid.) 

Herring     .      . 

Mackerel  . 

Turbot      .      . 

Salmon     . 

Cod  steaks     . 

Halibut  steaks 

Skate,  lobe    . 
Fish,  cured  — 

Cod,  salted     . 

Haddock,  smoked 
fillet    .      . 

Herring,  smoked. 
Dairy  Produce — 

Milk  (cow's),  whole 
,y        „        skim 

Cream,  thick 
„        thin   . 

Butter  II     .      .      . 

Cheese,  Cheddar 
„       Dutch     . 

Eggs  (hen's)  .      . 
Cereals  and  Farinaceous 
Products — 

Wheat  flour,  white 

Bread,  white 

Macaroni 

Barley,  pearl 

Rice    . 

Cornflour  . 

Oatmeal  . 

Tapioca    . 

Arrowroot 
Legumes — 

Beans 

Peas  . 

Lentils 


Number 

of 
Unita.* 


239-6 
220-8 
184-0 
341-6 
342-0 
323-6 
180-8 

381-6 
316-4 
466-8 
445-2 

89-3 
74-3 
174-3 
63-8 
360-0 
705-3 
426-3 
299-2 


302-9 
242-3 
345-7 
252-2 
240-2 
126-6 
416-5 
96-4 
97-5 

524-8 
5120 
5584 


Value  compared  with 


fBeef 
as  100. 


Rel.  val. 
56 
51 
43 
79 
79 
75 
42 

88 

73 

108 

103 

21 
17 
40 
15 
83 
164 
99 


70 
56 
80 
68 
56 
29 
97 
22 
23 


122 
119 
129 


Milk 
as  100. 


Rel.  val. 
268 
247 
206 
382 
383 
362 
202 

427 
354 
523 
498 

100 
83 
195 
71 
403 
790 
477 
332 


339 
271 

387 
282 
270 
143 
466 
108 
109 


587 
573 
654 


Bread 
as  100. 


Beef  at 
8d.  per  lb. 


Rel.  val. 

99 

91 

76 
141 
142 
134 

75 

158 
131 
193 
184 

37 

31 

72 

26 

149 

291 

176 

123 


125 

100 

143 

104 

99 

52 

172 

40 

40 


233 
211 
230 


Average 
Market 
Price 
per  lb. 


Pence. 

^ 

4 


6 
4 

7 

5| 
8| 
8 

m 

§4 

tn 

6J 
13 

8 

Bread  at 
lidperlb, 

If 

n 

2 

H 

H 

f 


H 

3 

H 


*  This  column  may  be  read  "  Value  compared  with  sugar  as  100. 
t  Roxmd.  X  ^^^  quart.  §  Per  pint. 

II  Margarine  same_a8  butter  except  price.  ^  Per  dozen. 


COMPOSITION  AND  RELATIVE    VALUES     181 


Number 

Value  compared  with 

Average 

Food. 

nf 

Market 

OI 

Units.* 

tBeef 

Milk 

Bread 

Bread  at 

Price 

as  100. 

as  100. 

as  100. 

lirf.perlb. 

per  lb. 

Rel.  val. 

Rel.  val. 

Rel.  val. 

Pence. 

Pence. 

Nuts— 

Walnuts    .... 

2054 

48 

230 

85 

li 

6 

Chestnuts       .      .      . 

239-6 

56 

268 

99 

l| 

3 

Peanuts    .... 

6249 

121 

588 

217 

3i 

6 

Fresh  Vegetahlea— 

Potatoes  .... 

611 

12 

67 

21 

i 

\ 

Onions      .... 

38-1 

9 

43 

16 

1 

if 

Leeks        .... 

26-6 

6 

30 

11 

+ 

Turnips     .... 

241 

6 

27 

10 

:; 



Carrots      .... 

26-2 

6 

29 

11 

'. '. 



Cabbage    .... 

33-6 

8 

38 

14 

X 



Green  Peas    .      .      . 

168-9 

37 

178 

66 

1 



Tomatoes       .      .      . 

235 

5 

26 

10 

{ 



Fresh  Fruits— 

Bananas  .... 

31-9 

7 

36 

13 

X 



Apples      .... 

18-0 

4 

20 

7 

X 



Plums       .      . 

37-1 

9 

42 

15 

X 



Oranges    .... 

20-9 

5 

23 

9 

+ 



Dried  Fruits— 

Figs 

161-4 

37 

181 

67 

1 

3 

Dates        .... 

118-6 

26 

132 

49 

i 

2 

Prunes      .... 

98-2 

23 

110 

41 

i 

4 

Raisins     »      .      .      . 

126-5 

29 

142 

62 

i 

3i-7i 

Currants  .... 

1290 

30 

144 

53 

I 

3I4 

Miscellaneous— 

Sugar        .... 

1000 

23 

112 

41 

2 

Treacle      .... 

26-0 

60 

29 

107 

H 

2i-3 

Damson  jam  . 

48-0 

11 

54 

19 

1 

4-6 

Honey      .... 

85-5 

19 

95 

35 

7-11 

♦  This  column  may  be  read 

t  Roimd. 

j  Less  than  a  farthing. 


Value  compared  with  sugar  as  100.' 


182 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


O 
M 

M 

P 

P-l 


i   I   I   I   I   I   1   D   B   i 


M   I   I   M    I    M 


IOCDOOO>-ICO'*COOO 


f-(  (M  (N  (N  (M  (N  C<l 


,^1   I   I   I   I   M   I   I 


ot^l 


S.ob 


©^00Tl4OCD(N00Ti<O 
Oipc<l-^»OI>QpOC<l 

r77777777 

(NCO-^lOCOt^OOOi© 


00000000000505050 

M   I   I   M   I   I   I 

C<lffOTt<»CiCDt^00050 


p,CD  CD«Dt^l>t>t-I>l>00 
.^    I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I 

$S.-i(MeOT*<iocot'00050 


g  — <©C<00-«*OTt<(M00-^O 

053q5i-H(N-^oi>05p<N-^ 
.^  M   I   I   I   I   M   M 

g,gi-H<NeC-«*OCDI>00050 


ogeouscoooOT'cC'^cOQp 

-^  I   «   I   M  i  I   M   I 

g£  oc<ioOTi(o<:DC<ico 
ogi>q5pM-^»pi>op 

fti-H  f-H   (N   N  C^  ^  N  N 
.^     I       I       i       i       I       I       I       i 

g,gi-H<NeCTi*io«oi>oo 


eo  CO 


I    I 


gr;©  <N  00  '■too 
Si-H  CO  -^  CD  00  05 

^©  6  6  6  6© 
S^  I   I   M   M 

-  -1  i-i  «  eo  '^  »o  » 


S§5^ 


s-s. 


I  I 


I  ( 

05© 


SECTION    III,   DIET 

CHAPTER   XVI 
COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS 

Any  man  endowed  with  the  arithmetical  faculty 
of  a  tapster,  might  have  solved  this  problem  with- 
out difficulty,  yet  for  an  untaught  computant, 
the  gift  of  divination  was  essential. 

Carlyle  {Germ  Romance), 

The  requirements  of  the  body  under  various  cir- 
cumstances and  the  composition  and  properties 
of  different  kinds  of  food  have  been  discussed  in 
previous  chapters.  It  now  remains  to  be  seen  how 
these  two  branches  of  knowledge  can  be  unified, 
i.e.,  how  the  foods  may  be  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  body  under  any  given  conditions.  If 
the  food  be  not  properly  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments either  waste  of  food,  or  imperfect  nutrition, 
or  possibly  both,  may  result. 

For  theoretical  examination  of  the  subject,  it 
is  necessary  to  go  into  considerable  detail,  and 
when  calculations  have  to  be  made  they  may  as 
well  be  made  exactly.  The  results,  however, 
must  be  interpreted  very  broadly,  and,  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  a  close  approximation  is  usually 
sufficient.     There  is  no  absolute  certainty  regard- 

188 


184  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

ing  the  fundamental  units  upon  which  all  calcula- 
tions must  be  based.  Differences  in  individuals, 
questions  of  taste,  pecuniary  economy  and  other 
matters  must  all  be  taken  into  account. 

The  question  of  adjusting  the  quantities  of  foods 
so  as  to  provide  given  amounts  of  nutrients  may, 
however,  be  considered  separately  ;  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  describe  the  methods  by  which  the  quantities 
may  be  computed  before  entering  upon  the  dis- 
cussion of  diets  from  other  points  of  view. 

The  composition  of  foods  is  not  absolutely  con- 
stant ;  but  the  averages  in  normal  samples  are  near 
enough  for  practical  purposes.  The  figures  given 
in  the  appendices  (p.  165  et  seq.)  are  used  through- 
out this  section,  and  will  be  found  there  when  not 
quoted  in  the  text. 

The  difficulty  of  adjusting  the  quantities  lies 
principally  in  the  fact  that  the  nutritive  ratios  of 
the  foods  do  not  correspond  exactly  with  those  of 
the  diets.  For  example,  the  standard  diet  (p.  47) 
provides  3  oz.  of  protein  and  2,800  kal.  fuel  value  ; 
but  none  of  the  common  foods  contain  the  nitro- 
genous and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in  exactly 
similar    proportions     (1-7).     A    pound    of    bread 

2  800 
yields   1,215  kal.,   and     '        =  2-3  lb.  are,  there- 

fore,    required   to   furnish    2,800   kal.     But   bread 

4.  •      n  o              ^     *         ...      9-2  X  2-3  X   16 
contams  9-2  per  cent,  of  protem,  i.e. r^r^r 

=  3-4  oz.  in  2-3  lb.,  whereas  only  3  oz.  are  required. 

The  quantity  of  bread  which  contains  3  oz.  of  pro- 

100  X  3 

tein    is    7— r —  =  204    lb.     But    this    quantity 

9-2  X  16  ^  J 

yields  only  (1,215  x  2-04)  =  2,479  kal.— a  defici- 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS  185 

ency  of  321  kal.  In  short,  since  the  N.  ratio  of 
the  diet  is  1-7,  and  that  of  bread  is  1-6-1,  they 
cannot  be  made  to  correspond.  There  must  always 
be  either  an  excess  of  protein  or  a  deficiency  of  non- 
nitrogenous  nutrients. 

In  the  above  case,  in  which  the  difference  between 
the  N.  ratios  is  comparatively  small,  the  conditions 
of  the  diet  may  be  satisfied  by  the  larger  quantity 
(2-3  lb.)  of  bread,  part  of  the  total  fuel  value  being 
derived  from  the  excess  of  protein.  When  the 
difference  between  the  N.  ratios  is  wider,  the  excess 
or  deficiency  is,  of  course,  greater.  For  instance, 
1-9  lb.  of  dates  (N.r.  1-40-1)  yields  2,800  kal.,  but 
contains  only  0-58  oz.  of  protein,  leaving  a  very 
large  deficiency.  If  9-8  lb. — ^which  contains  3  oz. 
of  protein — ^were  used,  there  would  be  a  very  large 
excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  nutrients  are 
not  all  derived  from  one,  but,  usually,  from  several 
different  kinds  of  food  ;  and  discrepancies  of  the 
kind  referred  to  may  be  avoided  by  combining 
them  in  such  proportions  that  the  deficiency  of 
any  ingredient  in  one  food  is  compensated  by  the 
excess  in  another. 

When  not  more  than  two  different  foods  are 
involved,  the  N.  ratio  of  one  must  be  higher,  and 
of  the  other  lower,  than  that  of  the  diet.^  Take  as 
a  simple  illustration  the  case  of  a  diet  in  which  the 
N.  ratio  is  1  to  7,  and  two  foods,  (a)  and  (&),  in 
which  the  N.  ratio  is  1  to  6  and  1  to  8  respectively. 
It  is  evident  that  the  excess  in  (a)  is  exactly  equal 
to  the  deficiency  in  (6).    But  if  the  N.  ratios  of  the 

^  In  the  special  case  in  which  the  N.  ratios  of  both 
foods  are  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  diet,  they  may 
be  combined  in  any  proportion  whatever. 


186  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

foods  were  (a)  1  to  5  and  (6)  1  to  8,  the  differences, 
as  compared  with  the  diet,  would  be  (a)  7— 5  =  2, 
and  (6)  7— 8  =  —  1  ;  the  excess  in  (a)  is  twice  as 
great  as  the  deficiency  in  (6)  and  two  parts  of  the 
latter  must,  therefore,  be  taken  to  one  of  the  former. 

The  required  proportions  can,  therefore,  be 
found  by  comparing  the  N.  ratios  of  the  foods  with 
that  of  the  diet.^ 

Take  the  actual  case  of  meat  and  potatoes  :  the 
N.  ratio  of  the  former  (rump  beef)  is  1  to  3-32,  and 
of  the  latter  1  to  8-29  ;  and  that  of  the  diet  is  1  to  7. 
The  differences,  therefore,  are  : — 

7-3-32==3-68  and  7-8-29= -1-29 

If  the  foods  contained  the  same  percentages 
of  protein  they  should  be  taken  in  that  proportion, 
i.e.  in  the  proportion  of  3-68  parts  of  potatoes  to  1-29 
parts  of  meat,  or  2-85  of  the  former  to  1  of  the 
latter.  2  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  meat 
contains  13-8  per  cent,  of  protein  and  potatoes 
only  1-8  per  cent.,  i.e.  1  part  of  meat  contains  7-6 
times  as  much  protein  as  1  part  of  potatoes  ;  there- 
fore 7-6  times  2-85  [=21-83]  parts  of  potatoes 
must  be  taken  to  1  of  meat,  for  this  particular  diet. 
This  may  be  put  more  tersely  as  follows  : — 

(7-3-32)xl3-8_50-78     ^ 
(8-29-7)  xl-8        2-32—^^'^^ 

This  method  of  calculation  may  also  be  illus- 

1  Or  thus,  ^^^i^=1.;8x+5=1x-i-1.'.Sx-7x=1  -5  .: 
a;-|-l 
^  x=2. 

'  ^'^^^-^^2=7/.8'29a;+3-32=7a;  +  7.-.l-29:c  =  3-68.-. 
a;=2-85 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS 


187 


trated  graphically,  as  follows.  If  the  percentages 
of  protein  and  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  be  plotted 
respectively  on  the  axes  OY  and  OX,  a  line  ON 
may  be  drawn  representing  the  N.  ratio  1  to  7,  and 


Y 
20 
16 
16 
14. 

n 

10 
8 
6 
4 
2 

B 

C 

M 

■ 

y 

J 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

y 

y 

/ 

N 

A 

/ 

4 

^ 

e,^^ 

P 

y 

b^ 

^ 

G 

^ 

^ 

F 

y 

/ 

^ 

^^ 

--'■^ 

^ 

^^ 

^i 

)        t 

n 

?        A 

;     2^ 

1     a 

F        ^ 

9     j; 

5       « 

? 

< 

y      i 

0        S 

S        6 

0 

Fig.  13. 


two  others,  OM  and  OP,  representing  the  ratios 
of  the  meat  (1  to  3-3)  and  potatoes  (1  to  8-2)  respec- 
tively. If  any  straight  line  AE  be  now  drawn  to 
cut  the  ratio  lines,  the  two  portions,  AD  and  DE, 
will  represent  the  differences  between  the  N.  ratios 
of  the  foods  and  that  of  the  diet.  Through  D  draw 
CO  at  right  angles  to  ^^,and  cut  off  DC  equal  to 
the    percentage  of    protein   in  the  meat,  and  DQ 


188  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

equal  to  the  percentage  of  protein  in  potatoes  ; 
the  areas  of  the  completed  rectangles,  ABCD  and 
DEFG,  represent  the  relative  proportions  of  the 
two  foods  required  to  produce  a  diet  having  an 
N.  ratio  of  1  to  7.  The  figure  may  be  drawn  on 
squared  paper,  and  the  areas  of  the  rectangles 
computed  from  the  number  of  squares  in  each.  The 
method,  however,  is  only  suitable  for  purposes  of 
demonstration. 

Having  foimd  the  relative  proportions  of  the 
foods  which  produce  a  given  N.  ratio,  the  actual 
quantities,  wtdch  together  contain  specified  amounts 
of  nutrients,  are  easily  ascertained.  Thus,  in  the 
above  example  we  have  : — 

a;|(21-83  X  0-018) +  (lxO-138)|  =±802. 

0-63a;=3     .*.     x=  5-65  oz. 
21-83  x5-65=:123-34  oz.=7-7  lb. 

These  quantities,  7-7  lb.  of  potatoes  and  5-65 
oz.  of  meat,  together  contain  3  oz.  of  protein  and 
(the  ratio  being  1  to  7)  21  oz.  of  total  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients. 

When  the  relative  proportions  are  not  required, 
the  actual  quantities  may  be  calculated  directly. 

The  differences  between  the  N.  ratios  of  the  foods 
and  that  of  the  diet  are  respectively : — 

7-3-32=3-68  and  7-8-29=-l-29 
making  a  total  difference  between  the  N.  ratios  of  the 
foods  of  3-68+  1-29  =  4-97  (or  8-29  -  3-32=  4-97), 
i.e.  out  of  4-97  parts  of  protein  3-68  parts  come  from 
potatoes  and  1-29  parts  from  meat ;  how  much  out 
of  3  parts  ? 

3*68x3     ^^^  1-29x3     ^  „^ 

-j:^=2.22  :  -^7-=o.78 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS  189 

but  100  oz.  of  potatoes  contain  1-8  oz.  of  protein ; 

how  much  contains  2-22  oz.  ?  and  similarly  for  the 

meat. 

100x2-22  .         100xO-78_ 

-^^^g— =123-34       :  -1378— -5-65 

The  whole  calculation  may  be  given  in  more 
condensed  form  thus  : — 

(7-3;32)x3xl00_  (8-29-7)  x3  x  100 

(8-29 -3-32)  xl-8~  (8-29-3-32)  x  13-8-^*^^ 

Those  who  have  a  knowledge  of  elementary 
mathematics  will  have  perceived  that  problems 
of  this  kind  may  be  solved  by  the  method  of  simul- 
taneous equations.  It  is,  perhaps,  simpler  than 
the  purely  arithmetical  process,  the  reasons  for 
the  successive  steps  are  more  clearly  apparent,  and 
as  the  trick  of  solving  these  equations  is  easily 
acquired  without  previous  knowledge  of  algebra, 
the  method  may  be  briefly  described. 

Take  the  same  example  as  before  :  how  much 
meat  and  potatoes  are  required  to  furnish  a  diet 
containing  3  oz.  of  protein  and  21  oz.  of  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients  ?  The  proportions  of  protein 
are  13-8  per  cent,  in  the  meat  and  1-8  per  cent,  in 
potatoes;  and  of  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients, 
45-85  per  cent,  in  meat  and  14-927  in  potatoes. 

The  quantities  of  the  foods  are  to  be  such  that 
the  protein  in  one  plus  the  protein  in  the  other  will 
amoimt  to  3  oz.  ;  and  the  non-nitrogenous  nutrients 
in  one  plus  that  in  the  other  will  amount  to  21  oz. 
If  the  unknown  quantities  of  potatoes  and  meat  be 
respectively  denoted  by  the  symbols  x  and  y,  the 
proposition  may  be  stated  as  follows  : — 

0-018a;4-0-1382/=3     :     0-14927a;+0-45852/=21 


190  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

In  order  to  eliminate  one  of  the  terms,  x,  we 
may  divide  ^  these  two  equations  by  the  co-efficient 
of  X  in  each  and  then  subtract  one  equation  from 
the  other,  thus  : — 

by  division,  a;+ 7-62/=  166-6  :  a;4- 3-072/=  140-75 
by  subtraction,       4-592/=25-91 
again  by  division,         y=5'64:. 

The  term  y  may  be  eliminated  and  the  value 
of  X  foimd  in  a  similar  manner,  i.e.  by  dividing  the 
equations  by  the  co-efficients  of  2/  in  each  and  then 
subtracting  one  from  the  other  as  before.  But 
when  the  value  of  y  is  known,  that  of  x  may  be 
found  more  readily  by  substituting  the  value  of  y 
in  either  of  the  two  original  equations  or  in  those 
derived  from  them,  thus  : — 

a;+3-072/=140-75  :  y=5-U 
a;=140-75-(307  x5-64)=123-4 

If  fuel  values  be  given  instead  of  total  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients,  the  equations  may  be  stated 
and  worked  out  in  the  same  way  ;  but  as  the  fuel 
values  are  given  in  kal.  per  lb.  of  food,  the  protein 
must  also  be  expressed  in  similar  terms,  i.e.  as 
oz.  per  lb.  of  food.  Percentages  x  016  =  oz.  per  lb. 
will  be  found  in  the  appendix  Table  G. 

Keeping  to  the  same  example,  we  have  : — 

0-288a;4-2-2082/=3     :     310a;+11102/=2800 

by  division      a;+ 7-62/=  10-41 6  :  a;+3-582/=9-032 

by  subtraction    4-082/=  1-39  •'•  2/=0-34  lb.=5-44  oz. 

31x+lll2/=280  :  2/=0-34 
by  substitution      31a;=280 -(111  x  0-34) 

=242-26  .-.  a;=7-8  lb. 

^  The  term  x  may  also  be  eliminated  from  two  simul- 
taneous equations  by  multiplying  the  first  equation  by 
the  coefficient  of  a:  in  the  second,  and  the  second  equation 
by  the  coefficient  of  a;  in  the  first,  and  then  subtracting 
as  above. 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS  191 

The  relative  proportions  of  the  foods  may  be 
found  in  a  similar  manner.  In  order  to  obtain 
X  and  y  in  terms  of  each  other,  the  numerical  terms 
must  be  eliminated,  i.e.  the  equations  must  be 
divided  by  the  numerical  terms  as  shown  in  the 
following  example  : — 

1 -80;+ 13- 82/= 3  :   14-927a;+45'85i/=21 
by  division       0-6a;+4-62/  =1  :  0'l\x-\-2'l^y=l 
by  subtraction  0-\\x-2'i2y=0  .'.  x—22y 

i.e.    the    proportion   is  22  parts  of  potatoes  to  1  of 
meat. 

Two  foods  can  be  combined  only  in  one  propor- 
tion to  satisfy  any  given  conditions.  If  there  be 
more  than  two  foods  they  can  be  combined  in  an 
indefinite  number  of  different  proportions ;  but 
there  are  limits  to  the  amount  of  each  food  that 
can  be  used  along  with  the  others. 

When  three  different  foods  are  included  in  the 
diet,  the  N.  ratio  of  one  must  be  higher,  and  that 
of  another  lower  than  that  of  the  diet.  The  N. 
ratio  of  the  third  food  may  be  either  higher  or 
lower.  Thus  it  may  happen  either  that  the  N. 
ratios  of  two  of  the  foods  are  higher,  and  of  one  lower 
than  that  of  the  diet,  or  vice  versa.  The  foods 
may  be  grouped  accordingly,  and  there  will  always 
be  two  in  one  group,  and  one  in  the  other. 

For  example,  if  the  N.  ratio  of  the  diet  be  1  to  7 
and  those  of  the  foods  (a)  1  to  5,  (6)  1  to  6  and  (c) 
1  to  8  respectively,  the  differences,  ^  compared  with 
the  diet  are  : — 

7-5+7-6=3  and  7-8=-l 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  1  part  of  (a)  plus  1 

x-\-2 


192 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


part  of  (h)  plus  3  parts  of  (c)  would  give  the  N. 
ratio  required.  In  this  case  (a)  and  (b)  are  taken 
in  equal  proportions  ;  if  they  were  taken  in  any 
other  proportion — ^as  they  might  be — the  propor- 
tion of  (c)  would  also  be  different ;  and  an  indefinite 
number  of  combinations  can  thus  be  found  to  satisfy 
the  conditions.  Some  of  them  are  shown  in  the 
following  table  : — 


a  .      .      . 

2 

1-6 

1 

0-5 

0 

6   .     .      . 

0 

0-5 

1 

1-6 

2 

c  .      .     . 

4 

3-5 

3 

2-5 

2 

It  will  be  seen  that  as  the  proportion  of  (a)  in- 
creases that  of  (6)  diminishes,  and  vice  versa  ;  also 
that  each  is  maximum  when  the  other  is  zero  ;  (c) 
reaches  the  maximum  when  (6)  is  zero,  and  the 
minimum  when  (a)  is  zero,  because  the  N.  ratio  of 
(b)  is  lower  than  that  of  (a) ;  but  (c)  is  never  zero, 
i.e.  the  diet  can  be  compounded  from  a  and  c  or 
b  and  c,  but  not  from  a  and  b. 

To  take  an  actual  case,  it  is  required  to  compound 
a  diet  from  three  different  foods,  the  data  being  as 
follows  : — 

Meat.  Potatoes.  Bread.  Diet. 

Protein    .      2-208  . .     0-288  . .      1-47  . .      3         oz. 

Fuel  value     1,110  ..      310  ..      1,216  ..     2,800  kal. 

N.  ratio    .      1-3-3  ..      1-8-3  ..      1-6-1  ..      1-7 

Since  the  N.  ratio  of  potatoes  is  lower  than  that 
of  the  diet,  and  those  of  the  other  two  foods  are 
higher,  the  quantity  of  potatoes  cannot  fall  to  zero, 
but  that  of  each  of  the  others  may  do  so.  Since 
the  N.  ratio  of  bread  is  lower  than  that  of  meat, 
the  quantity  of  potatoes  will  be  maximum  when 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS  193 

bread  is  zero  and  minimum  when  meat  is  zero. 
These  values  are  easily  calculated  as  follows  : — 

0-288rc+2-2082/=3  :  310a;-|-1110i/=2800 
a;=7-82  and  y=0-34, 

0-288iC+ 1-472/  =3  :  310a;-hl2152/=2800 
a;=4-47  and  y=l'l6 

i.e.  meat  may  be  taken  in  any  quantity  from  0  up 
to  0-339  lb.,  and  bread  from  0  up  to  116  lb.  ;  but 
the  quantity  of  potatoes  must  be  not  less  than  4*47 
lb.  or  more  than  7*82  lb. 

If  the  quantity  of  any  one  of  the  foods  be  fixed 
— arbitrarily  or  otherwise — the  quantities  of  the 
other  two  foods  that  must  be  used  along  with  it  are 
thereby  determined  and  can  easily  be  calculated. 
For  example,  let  the  quantity  of  meat  be  fixed  at 
J  lb.,  then  we  have 

2-208  1110 

•288a;+l-47t/+-^=3  :  310a;+1215t/-(— ^=2800 

•288a;+l-472/=3 -0-552  :   31a;+ 121-52/=280 -27-75 
•288a;+l-472/=2-448         :   31a;+121-5t/=:252-25 
a;=i6-91  and  2/=0-305 

When  J  lb.  of  meat  is  specified,  the  quantities 
are  6*91  lb.  of  potatoes  and  0*305  lb.  of  bread. 

If  5  lb.  potatoes  had  been  specified  instead  of  J 
lb.  of  meat,  the  equations  would  have  been  : — 

l-47a;+2-208y+(0-288x5)=3  :  1215a;+11102/-h(310  x5) 

=2800 
l-47«+2-2082/=l-56  :  121 5a;+1110i/=  1260 

37=0-98  and  y=0-054 

i.e.  5  lb.  potatoes,  0*98  lb.  bread,  and  0*054  lb.  of 
meat  would  give  the  diet  required. 

The  following  tabulated  statement  of  the  results 
obtained  above  shows  how  the  proportions  of  the 
three  foods  vary  in  the  cases  considered  : — 

o 


Potatoes    . 

.     447     . 

.     6-0 

,.     6-91 

Bread  .      . 

.      116     . 

.     0-98 

.      0-305 

Meat    .      . 

— 

.     0-054      . 

.     0-25 

194  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

.     7-82 
!     0-34 

Four  difEerent  foods  can  be  combined  in  an  inde- 
finite number  of  ways  to  satisfy  any  given  condi- 
tions ;  but  the  N.  ratio  of  one  of  them  must  be 
higher,  and  of  another  lower,  than  that  of  the  diet. 
The  N.  ratios  of  both  the  remaining  foods  may  be 
higher,  or  they  may  be  lower  than  that  of  the  diet ; 
or  the  N.  ratio  of  one  of  them  may  be  higher,  and 
of  the  other  lower.  In  the  last  case,  the  foods  can 
be  arranged  in  pairs,  i.e.  in  two  groups  of  2  ;  in 
either  of  the  two  previous  cases  they  can  be  ar- 
ranged in  two  groups  of  1  and  3. 

For  example,  if  the  N.  ratio  of  the  diet  be  1  to  7, 
that  of  one  of  the  foods  1  to  4,  and  that  of  another 
1  to  10  ;  the  N.  ratios  of  the  other  two  foods  might  be 
higher  than  that  of  the  diet,  viz.  1  to  5  and  1  to  6 
respectively  ;  or  they  might  be  lower,  viz.  1  to  8  and 
1  to  9  respectively  ;  or  the  N.  ratio  of  one  might  be 
higher,  viz.  1  to  5,  and  of  the  other  lower,  viz.  1  to  9. 
In  each  case  the  foods  might  be  arranged  in  two 
groups  as  follows  : — 

(a)  (1  to  4,  1  to  5,  1  to  6)  and  (1  to  10). 
(&)  (1  to  4)  and  (1  to  8,  1  to  9,  1  to  10). 
(c)  (1  to  4,   1  to  6)  and  (1  to   9,   1  to  10). 

In  each  case,  the  deficiency  of  any  ingredient  in 
one  group  is  to  be  compensated  by  the  excess  in 
the  other.  But  the  foods,  in  each  group  that  con- 
tains more  than  one,  can  be  taken  in  an  indefinite 
number  of  different  proportions,  and  the  quantities 
of  the  food,  or  foods,  in  the  other  group  will  vary 
accordingly. 

Th^  minimum  quantity  of  any  food  in  a  group 


COMPUTATION  OF  DIETS  196 

which  contains  3  is  zero  ;  and  that  food  reaches  its 
maximum  when  the  other  two  are  zero.  The  quan- 
tity of  any  food  in  a  group  which  contains  only  1 
can  never  fall  to  zero  ;  but  it  reaches  the  minimum 
when  combined  with  that  one  of  the  three  which 
has  the  nearest  N.  ratio  ;  and  it  reaches  the  maxi- 
mum when  combined  with  that  one  of  which  the 
N.  ratio  differs  most  from  its  own.  For  example, 
in  (a)  the  maximum  quantity  of  food  which  has  a 
N.  ratio  of  1  to  10  is  that  which  can  be  combined 
with  the  food  which  has  a  N.  ratio  of  1  to  4 ;  and 
the  minimum,  that  which  can  be  combined  with 
the  food  which  has  a  N.  ratio  of  1  to  6. 

If  there  be  two  foods  in  each  group — arranged  as 
in  (c) — the  quantity  of  any  one  of  them  may  be 
zero,  and  that  of  the  other  will  then  be  maximum. 

If  the  quantities  of  any  two  of  the  foods — out  of 
four — be  fixed,  the  quantities  of  the  other  two  are 
thereby  determined  and  can  easily  be  calculated  as 
before. 

In  practice  it  very  often  happens  that  the  quan- 
tity of  some  one  or  more  of  the  foods  is  Umited  by 
reason  of  its  cost,  by  custom,  appetite,  or  other 
circumstance.  Certain  foods,  also,  are  naturally 
associated  together,  e.g.  meat  and  potatoes,  bread 
and  butter,  rice  and  milk,  and  so  on.  As  a  rule,  no 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  making  whatever  calcu- 
lations are  required. 


CHAPTEE   XVII 
NATIONAL  DIETS 

At  this  day  in  China,  the  common  people  live  in 
a  manner  altogether  on  roots  and  herbs,  and 
to  the  wealthiest,  horse,  ass,  mule,  dogs,  catflesh, 
is  as  delightsome  as  the  rest.  The  Tartars  eat 
raw  meat,  and  most  commonly  horse-flesh, 
drink  milk  and  blood,  as  the  Nomads  of  old. 
They  scoff  at  our  Europeans  for  eating  bread, 
which  they  call  tops  of  weeds  and  horse  meat, 
not  fit  for  men.  In  Scandia  their  bread  is  usually 
dried  fish,  and  so  likewise  in  the  Shetland  isles  ; 
and  their  other  fare,  as  in  Iceland,  saith  Dithmarus 
Bleskenius,  butter,  cheese  and  fish.  In  West- 
phalia they  feed  most  part  on  fat  meats  and 
wourts,  knuckle  deep,  and  call  it  cerebrum  lovis : 
in  the  low  countries  with  roots,  in  Italy  frogs 
and  snails  are  used. 

Burt<m*s  "  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.'''' 

In  all  civilized  countries,  the  food  of  the  people 
consists,  broadly,  of  meat,  cereals,  and  fresh  fruits 
and  vegetables.  Climatic  and  economic  conditions, 
the  habits  and  tastes  of  the  people,  and  a  variety 
of  other  circumstances,  however,  cause  the  inhabi- 
tants of  different  countries  to  use  these  various 
kinds  of  food  in  very  different  proportions  ;  certain 
foods  enter  much  more  largely  into  the  diet  of  some 
than  of  others. 

The  staple  food  of  the  EngHsh,  and  most  other 
Europeans,  is  wheat.     Asiatics  depend  more  largely 


NATIONAL  DIETS  197 

upon  rice,  and  others  upon  lentils,  dates,  bananas, 
etc.  The  Scots  use  more  oatmeal,  and  the  Irish 
more  potatoes,  than  the  corresponding  classes  in 
England. 

Such  staple  or  principal  foods  are  often  spoken 
of  as  constituting  the  national  diet  of  the  peoples 
in  question.  In  no  case,  however,  do  the  people  of 
any  country  exist  exclusively  upon  any  particular 
kind  of  food ;  nor  is  the  use  of  any  of  the  more 
important  food  stuffs  entirely  confined  to  any  one 
country.  The  means  of  communication  are  now  so 
well  established  that  the  principal  products  of  every 
country  can  be  obtained  in  nearly  every  other,  and 
the  demand  for  variety  causes  them  to  be  used  in 
larger  or  smaller  quantities. 

It  is  sometimes  assumed,  because  certain  peoples 
exist,  or  even  thrive,  on  a  diet  largely  composed  of 
certain  kinds  of  food,  that  these  foods  are  peculiarly 
nourishing,  or  that  they  are  peculiarly  suited  to  the 
climatic  conditions  and  requirements  of  the  people. 
Such  generalizations  must,  however,  be  accepted 
with  considerable  reserve. 

People  who  live  in  the  higher  latitudes  generally 
consume  more  animal  foods  than  those  who  live 
nearer  to  the  equator  ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
they  require  more,  or  that  vegetable  foods  are  more 
suitable  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  regions. 
Vegetable  products  are  generally  scarcer  in  the 
colder  climates,  and  the  people  are,  therefore,  com- 
pelled to  depend  more  upon  animal  foods.  Men 
soon  become  accustomed  to  the  kind  of  food  they 
can  most  easily  procure,  and  generally  prefer  the 
kind  of  food  they  are  accustomed  to.  Individuals 
to  whom  the  common  food  of  the  country  is  not 
agreeable  could  not  survive  ;  and  it  is  possible  that. 


198  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

after  countless  generations,  the  inhabitants  of  differ- 
ent regions  may  have  become  slightly  differentiated 
in  respect  of  their  capacity  for  certain  kinds  of  food. 

The  Eskimos  consume  large  quantities  of  seal 
blubber  ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  this 
particular  fat  is  peculiarly  nourishing  or  specially 
suitable  for  these  people.  Living,  as  they  do,  in  a 
very  cold  climate,  they  require  a  diet  which  has  a 
higher  fuel  value  than  is  necessary  for  people  in 
more  temperate  zones  ;  and  fat  contributes  more 
to  the  fuel  value  than  an  equal  weight  of  any  other 
constituent  of  the  food.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  fat  might  be,  in  part,  replaced  by  carbohy- 
drates ;  but  in  a  climate  where  there  is  practically 
no  vegetation,  these  are  not  available. 

It  is  worth  while  to  examine  some  of  those  staple 
and  principal  foods  which  constitute  the  so-called 
national  diets,  from  various  points  of  view,  and  to 
consider  to  what  extent  they  may  enter  into  a  mixed 
diet,  and  what  relation  they  bear  to  the  question  of 
pecuniary  economy. 

It  has  been  shown  that,  in  general,  the  N.  ratios 
of  the  foods  do  not  correspond  exactly  with  those 
of  the  diets,  and  that,  consequently,  the  largest 
quantity  of  any  food  that  can,  theoretically,  be  used 
with  economy  is  that  which  supplies  exactly  the 
amount  of  one  of  the  nutrients,  and  leaves  a  defi- 
ciency of  the  others  to  be  supplied  from  another 
source.  The  importance  of  variety,  however,  is 
such  that  it  would  be  inexpedient,  even  if  it  were 
practicable — ^which  it  is  not — ^to  derive  the  whole  of 
either  kind  of  nutrient  from  a  single  food.  It  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down  any  absolute  general  rule  on 
this  important  point ;  but  the  author  would  suggest 
that  the  largest  quantity  of  any  food  that  is  regularly 


NATIONAL  DIETS  199 

used  should  not  exceed  two-thirds  of  the  theoretic 
maximum,  and,  if  possible,  it  should  not  be  more 
than  half  that  amount.  In  plain  language,  not 
more  than  two  meals  out  of  three  should  be  "  bread 
and  butter  "  meals,  and,  if  possible,  the  proportion 
should  be  even  less. 

The  term  bread  is  often  used  as  a  synonym  for 
food,  e.g.  "  daily  bread,''  and  the  fact  is  significant 
of  the  general  importance  of  bread  as  an  article  of 
diet.  The  prominent  position  which  bread  occupies 
in  the  diet  of  the  people  has  been  greatly  emphasized 
by  the  recent  history  of  political  agitation  in  this 
country. 

Bread,  in  the  commoner  and  strictly  limited 
sense  of  the  term,  is  usually  made  from  wheat  flour. 
Other  cereals  are  used,  but  the  products  are  gener- 
ally distinguished  as  rye  bread,  barley  bread,  etc. 
(see  p.  107).  When  no  qualification  is  used,  the 
term  bread  is  to  be  understood  as  referring  exclu- 
sively to  ordinary  wheaten  bread. 

One  pound  of  bread,  as  commonly  baked  in  this 
country,  contains  about  1|  oz.  of  protein,  and  has  a 
fuel  value  of  1,215  kal.  The  non-nitrogenous  nutri- 
ents, amounting  to  some  56  per  cent.,  consist  almost 
entirely  of  starch  ;  and  appetite  prompts  people  to 
combine  with  their  bread  a  certain  amount  of  fat, 
usually  in  the  form  of  butter.  Butter  is  almost 
invariably  used  where  bread  forms  the  sole  or  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  meal.  The  quantity  used  varies 
from  about  1  to  3  oz.  of  butter  per  lb.  of  bread  ;  2 
oz.  may  be  regarded  as  a  fair  average  allowance. 
The  amount  of  protein  in  2  oz.  of  butter  is  negligible, 
but  the  fuel  value,  450  kal.,  must  be  added  to  that 
of  the  bread. 

The  diet  for    a    man    of    average    size,    doing 


200  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

hard  work,  was  estimated  (p.  55)  at  4  oz.  of 
protein  and  3,600  kal.  About  39  oz.  of  the  com- 
bined food — bread  and  butter — ^would  furnish  the 
whole  fuel  value  ;  but,  it  has  been  said,  not  more 
than  two-thirds  of  this  theoretic  maximum,  i.e.  23 
oz.  of  bread  and  3  oz.  of  butter,  should  be  regularly 
used. 

Taking  the  price  of  bread  at  l^d.  per  lb.,  and  of 
butter  at  Is.  per  lb.,  or  ^d.  per  oz.,  the  cost  of  the 
quantities  given  above  would  be  2Jc?.  for  each  or 
4Jd^.  per  day  for  the  combined  food  supplying  two- 
thirds  of  the  fuel  value,  but  less  than  two-thirds  of 
the  protein,  of  the  diet.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
butter  costs  as  much  as  the  bread,  though  it  sup- 
plies less  than  a  third  of  the  total  fuel  value  and 
none  of  the  nitrogen. 

Bread  and  butter  enters  into  the  diet  of  single 
women,  seamstresses,  etc.,  perhaps  more  largely 
than  of  any  other  class.  Some  of  these  people, 
indeed,  subsist  almost  entirely  on  this  food.  The 
diet  of  a  woman  of  average  size,  living  a  sedentary 
life,  should  contain  about  2|  oz.  of  protein  and  have 
a  fuel  value  of  2,340  kal.  About  26  oz.  of  bread 
contain  the  required  amount  of  protein  ;  but,  when 
combined  with  the  appropriate  amount  of  butter 
(3-3  ozc),  this  would  supply  an  excess  of  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients,  and  the  cost  would  amount  to 
nearly  5d.  per  day. 

Two-thirds  of  the  fuel  value  of  the  diet  could  be 
obtained  from  14  oz.  of  bread  and  If  oz.  of  butter 
at  a  cost  of  2^d.  per  day.  This  would  contain  less 
than  two-thirds  of  the  required  amoimt  of  protein  ; 
but  as  it  would  cost  only  half  as  much  as  the  com- 
plete diet  of  bread  and  butter,  the  difference,  2J^. 
per  day,  would  be  available  to  provide  a  third  meal 


NATIONAL  DIETS  201 

of  a  different  and,  possibly,  more  nitrogenous 
character,  at  the  same  total  cost. 

The  excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  in  the 
larger  quantity  of  bread  and  butter  would,  of  course, 
be  available  either  for  additional  work  or  fattening, 
but,  if  not  required  for  these  purposes,  it  must  be 
regarded  as  wasted.  Besides,  an  imvaried  diet  of 
bread  and  butter  is  objectionable  on  other  grounds. 
It  tends  to  produce  constipation  and  loss  of  appe- 
tite, especially  in  those  who  live  sedentary  lives. 
On  such  a  diet  the  individual  would  probably  not 
eat  enough  to  provide  all  the  protein  required,  and 
loss  of  weight  would  result. 

Oatmeal  is  not  so  extensively  used  as  wheaten 
bread.  Many  people  dislike  the  taste  of  it,  and 
others  complain  that  it  does  not  agree  with  them. 
It  has  a  slightly  laxative  effect,  but  this  property  is 
less  noticeable  when  it  is  very  finely  ground.  The 
price  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  bread,  but  it 
contains  more  protein  and  has  a  higher  fuel  value. 

One  pound  of  oatmeal  contains  about  2 J  oz.  of 
protein,  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  1,860  kal.  About 
IJ  lb.,  therefore,  would  supply  all  the  protein — ^but 
not  the  fuel  value — required  in  the  diet  of  an  average 
working  man  ;  and  two-thirds  of  this  amount  or  1 
lb.  per  day  is  the  most  that  should  be  regularly 
used.  Some  of  the  labourers  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts in  Scotland  may  eat  as  much  as  this  in  one 
form  or  another  ;  but  the  working  men  in  towns 
probably  do  not  consume  more  than  half  that 
amount,  and  many  of  them  not  more  than  J  lb. 
Four  oz.  of  oatmeal  makes  a  moderate  dish  of  por- 
ridge, and  8  oz.  is  a  large  quantity  to  be  consumed 
at  one  time. 

Porridge  is  generally  eaten  with  either  milk  or 


202  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

sugar.  The  quantities  commonly  used  are  about 
i  pt.  of  the  former,  or  from  1  to  2  oz.  of  the  latter 
to,  say,  6  oz.  of  oatmeal.  Since  the  N.  ratio  of  oat- 
meal is  higher  than  that  of  the  diet,  sugar  is  obvi- 
ously the  more  suitable,  and  it  is  certainly  much 
cheaper  than  milk. 

Oatmeal  is  also  used  in  the  form  of  oat  cakes,  but 
these  generally  include  a  certain  amount  of  either 
fat  or  sugar,  or  sometimes  both.  The  proportion  of 
fat  commonly  used  is  from  1  to  2  oz.  per  lb.  of  meal. 

Consider  the  case  of  a  man  who  eats  10  oz.  of  oat- 
meal daily  ;  8  oz.  as  porridge  and  2  oz.  as  oat  cakes. 
Including  the  milk  (|  pint)  taken  with  the  former  and 
the  fat  in  the  latter,  this  would  contain  altogether 
nearly  2  oz.  of  protein  and  have  a  fuel  value  of 
1,410  kal.,  i.e.  half  the  amount  of  protein,  but  less 
than  half  the  fuel  value  required.  The  cost  works 
out  at  2ld.  per  day,  or  nearly  Is.  ^d.  per  week. 

The  half -pint,  of  milk  costs  \d.  or  nearly  as  much  as 
the  oatmeal,  though  it  contains  less  than  one-fifth 
of  the  nutrients.  If  2  oz.  of  sugar  were  substituted 
for  the  milk,  the  combined  food  would  furnish  1-6 
oz.  of  protein  and  1,450  kal.  at  a  cost  of  \\d.  per 
day  or  10|c?.  per  week.  This,  it  will  be  seen,  is  not 
only  cheaper,  but  more  economical. 

For  an  expenditure  of  2\d.  on  bread  and  butter, 
only  1  oz.  of  protein  and  1,100  kal.  could  be  ob- 
tained ;  and  for  \\d.  only  |  oz.  of  protein  and  732 
kal.  If,  therefore,  porridge  and  milk,  or  porridge 
and  sugar,  be  substituted  for  one  of  the  bread  and 
butter  meals,  the  same  amount  of  nourishment  can 
be  obtained  for  a  smaller  expenditure,  and  the 
advantages  of  variety  are  secured  at  the  same  time. 

Potatoes  contain  a  large  amount  of  water  and 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  nutrients.     Much 


NATIONAL  DIETS  203 

larger  quantities  of  potatoes  than  of  cereals  are, 
therefore,  required  to  satisfy  any  given  conditions. 
A  pound  of  potatoes  contains  about  0-29  oz.  of 
protein  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  310  kal.,  so  that 
about  11 J  lb.  would  be  required  to  furnish  3,600 
kal.  The  quantities  consumed  by  average  indi- 
viduals in  this  country  are  very  much  less  than  two- 
thirds  of  that  amount.  Generally,  in  families 
where  potatoes  are  eaten  only  at  one  meal,  which 
also  includes  meat  and  pudding,  the  average  allow- 
ance is  about  1  lb.  per  day  for  each  adult.  When 
potatoes  are  eaten  at  all  three  meals,  as  is  common 
amongst  the  farmers  and  working  classes  in  Canada, 
from  2  to  3  lb.  per  day  may  be  consumed  by  each 
man.  Still  larger  quantities  are  consumed  by  the 
peasants  in  some  parts  of  Ireland,  but  probably 
never  as  much  as  7  lb.  per  day. 

The  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  of  potatoes  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  starch,  and  a  quantity  of 
butter,  or  other  fat,  is  often  used  along  with  them. 
This,  no  doubt,  makes  them  more  palatable,  but 
the  practice  is  economically  unsound,  because  the 
N.  ratio  of  potatoes  is  lower  than  that  of  the  diet, 
and  it  is  protein  rather  than  non-nitrogenous  nu- 
trients that  should  be  added. 

Many  housekeepers  believe  that  when  potatoes 
are  mashed  or  beaten,  people  eat  more  of  them, 
and  that  the  process  is,  therefore,  an  extravagant 
one.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  mere  fact 
of  crushing  the  potatoes  cannot  affect  the  amount 
of  nourishment  in  them  ;  and  that,  if  people  eat 
more  in  that  condition  they  will  eat — or,  at  least, 
they  will  require — correspondingly  less  of  other 
foods. 

Taking  the  price  of  potatoes  at  ^d.  per  lb.,  IJc?. 


204  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

would  purchase  3  lb.  ;  this  quantity  contains  0-87 
oz.  of  protein  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  930  kal.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that  the  amount  of  nourish- 
ment in  a  diet  of  potatoes  is  less  than  that  in  the 
oatmeal,  but  more  than  that  in  the  bread  and 
butter  which  can  be  obtained  for  a  similar  expendi- 
ture. 

Meat,  in  this  connexion,  is  a  very  indefinite  term. 
It  includes  all  the  different  cuts  of  various  animals  ; 
and  these,  it  has  been  shown,  vary  widely  in  com- 
position and  price.  A  lb.  of  beef  round  contains 
about  3  oz.  of  protein  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  900 
kal.  This  quantity  would,  therefore,  contain 
sufficient  protein,  but  has  only  about  one-third  of  the 
fuel  value  required  for  a  sedentary  diet,  and  4  lb. 
would  be  required  to  furnish  the  diet  of  a  working 
man. 

The  diet  of  normal  individuals,  of  course,  is  never 
composed  entirely  of  meat,  but  that  of  diabetic 
patients  sometimes  is.  Such  persons  should  choose 
the  fattest  kinds  of  meat  obtainable,  e.g.  rump  or 
flank  of  beef,  loin  or  breast  of  mutton,  bacon,  etc. 
In  this  way  the  fuel  value  might  be  obtained  from 
about  2  or  3  lb.  of  such  meats — there  would  always 
be  a  certain  excess  of  protein — ^at  a  cost  of  say 
25.  Id.  per  day  (2 J  lb.  at  10c?.)  or  145.  7d.  per  week. 

A  mixed  diet,  for  a  normal  individual,  should  not 
include,  at  the  outside,  more  than  1  lb.  to  IJ  lb.  of 
meat  of  all  kinds,  including  bone  and  unedible 
matter,  as  purchased.  Such  a  quantity  could  only 
be  used  by  persons  to  whom  expenditure  is  a  secon- 
dary consideration.  A  similar  amount  of  nourish- 
ment can  be  obtained  at  much  less  cost  in  other 
forms. 

It  was  suggested  (p.  201)  that  if  two  meals  per 


NATIONAL  DIETS 


205 


day  consist  of  bread  and  butter,  the  third  should 
be  of  a  different  character,  e.g.,  meat  and  potatoes, 
and  that  this  could  be  obtained  at  about  the  same 
total  cost  as  a  diet  made  up  entirely  of  the  former. 
Taking  the  price  of  beef  round  at  8d.  per  lb.,  2  oz. 
could  be  purchased  for  Id.  and  2  lb.  of  potatoes 
for  another  Id.  Adding  1  lb.  of  bread  and  2  oz.  of 
butter,  the  whole  diet  would  be  as  follows  : — 


rrotein. 

Fuel  Value. 

Cost. 

2  lb.  potatoes  . 

1  „   bread 

2  oz.  meat 
2   „   butter 

oz. 
0-58 
1-50 
0-38 

Kal. 

620 

1,215 

112 

450 

d. 

1 

H 

1 

Total  .... 

2-46 

2,397 

5 

The  whole  diet,  it  will  be  seen,  contains  almost 
exactly  the  amounts  of  nutrients  required  by  a 
woman  living  a  sedentary  life  ;  and  the  cost  of  the 
food  is  no  more  than  that  of  a  diet  consisting  entirely 
of  bread  and  butter.  It  would,  however,  cost 
rather  more  to  cook  it. 

Other  diets,  e.g.,  the  Oriental's  diet  of  rice,  the 
so-called  Manx  national  diet  of  potatoes  and  her^ 
ring,  etc.,  may  be  investigated  in  a  similar  manner. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
FAMILIAR  DIET 

C —  holds  that  a  man  cannot  have  a  pure  mind 
who  refuses  apple  dumplings. 

Essays  of  Elia. 

Of  all  branches  of  the  subject  embraced  under  the 
title  Economy  of  Food,  there  is,  perhaps,  none  of 
greater  general  interest  than  the  question  of  ways 
and  means.  For  pecunious  persons  this  question 
practically  does  not  exist.  They  select  such  foods 
as  appeal  to  their  tastes,  and  eat  as  much  as  they 
want.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  nutrients 
are  nearly  always  in  excess  of  the  requirements, 
and  need  not  be  checked  except  in  cases  of  obesity 
or  other  trouble. 

When  the  income  is  small  and  the  margin  narrow, 
the  problem  of  ways  and  means  becomes  a  very 
important  one.  It  acquires,  perhaps,  its  highest 
degree  of  interest  when  considered  with  reference 
to  the  diet  of  families,  and  examination  of  it  from 
this  point  of  view  helps  to  illuminate  the  whole 
subject. 

The  diet  of  any  group  of  persons  should  be  such 
as  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  all  the  members. 
In  the  case  of  a  family  these  are  extraordinarily 
diverse,  because,  in  general,  the  family  consists  of 
several  persons  of  both  sexes  and  of  various  ages 
and  occupations. 

206 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


207 


The  subject  can  only  be  investigated  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  requirements  of  given  individuals 
which,  for  present  purposes,  may  be  taken  to  be 
those  of  the  standard  diet  (p.  47).  To  ascertain 
the  requirements  of  a  family,  those  of  working  men 
may  be  taken  as  1-3  times,  and  of  women  0-85 
times,  the  standard  diet ;  the  factors  for  children 
are  0-25  under  five  years  of  age  ;  0-5  from  five  to 
ten  years  ;  and  0-75  from  ten  to  fifteen  years. 
The  approximation  is,  in  each  case,  a  very  rough 
one  ;  but,  having  regard  to  what  is  customary  and 
practicable,  it  is  probably  near  enough  for  ordinary 
purposes. 

For  example,  suppose  a  family  to  consist  of  eight 
persons,  viz.,  the  father  (a  working  man),  mother, 
son  aged  17  (a  clerk),  daughter  aged  16  (a  milliner), 
and  four  children,  aged  12,  8,  6  and  3  years  respec- 
tively ;  the  total  requirements  of  the  family  would 
be  found  as  follows  : — 


1  working  man  . 

1  (standard)  man 

2  women,  . 

2x0-85 

= 

1-3  men. 
1-0     „ 
1-7      „ 

4  children — 

(10-15  yrs.) 

(5-10     „   ) 

(      -5      „   ) 

1x0-75 
2x0-50 
1x0-25 

= 

0-75    „ 
1-00    „ 
0-25    „ 

Total 

. 

= 

6-00  men. 

The  total  requirements  of  the  family  would,  there- 
fore, be  the  same  as  those  of  six  men  leading  seden- 
tary lives,  or  six  times  the  standard  diet,  i.e. 
3  X  6  =  18  oz.  of  protein,  and  2,800  X  6  =  16,800 
kal.  per  day. 

The  question  of  means  and  the  apportionment  of 
the  same  is  a  very  difficult  one.     From  data  ob- 


208  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

tained  by  Mr.  Charles  Booth  ^  in  the  course  of  his 
sociological  investigations  in  London,  the  author 
has  formulated  the  hypothesis  that  a  man  earning 
255.  per  week  might  expend  about  155.  on  food. 
If  he  had  a  wife  and  two  children,  of  whom  the 
combined  requirements  were  equal  to  those  of  two 
men,  the  total  requirements  of  the  family  would 
be  the  same  as  those  of  three  men.  In  such  a  case 
the  mean  expenditure  for  food  would  be  at  the 
rate  of  55.  per  (man)  head.  At  all  events,  this 
case  may  be  considered,  and  the  problem  to  be 
investigated  is  how  the  money  could  be  most  pro- 
fitably expended,  having  regard  to  the  requirements 
and  the  natural  desire  for  such  luxuries  as  could  be 
obtained  within  the  prescribed  limits. 

It  was  shown  in  the  last  chapter  that  a  diet  con- 
sisting exclusively  of  meat  would  cost  about  145. 
per  week  ;  if  the  nutrients  were  derived  entirely 
from  vegetable  products — cereals,  potatoes,  etc. — 
the  cost  would  only  amount  to  some  two  or  three 
shillings  per  week.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  55. 
per  week  would  not  cover  the  cost  of  a  diet  con- 
sisting exclusively  of  meat ;  but  as  that  sum  is 
more  than  sufficient  for  one  consisting  wholly  of 
vegetable  products,  a  certain  amount  of  the  former 
may  be  included. 

How  much  of  the  55.  may  be  spent  on  meat,  and 
how  much  must  be  spent  on  vegetable  foods  de- 
pends upon  the  composition  and  cost  of  each.  A 
simple  calculation  ^  will  show  that  if  the  latter 
consisted  entirely  of  wheat  flour,  as  much  as  35.  6d. 

*  Life  and  Labour  of  the  People,  p.  133. 

*  Since  the  meat  contains  excess  of  protein,  the  fuel 
values  alone  need  be  considered ;    and  the  conditions  are 


FAMILIAR  DIET  209 

might  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  meat ;  but  if 
it  consisted  entirely  of  potatoes,  not  more  than  35. 
would  be  available  for  this  purpose.  In  each  case, 
if  more  were  spent  on  meat,  either  the  amount  of 
nutrients  would  be  insufficient,  or  the  total  cost 
(5s.)  would  be  exceeded.  If  less  were  spent  on 
meat,  either  there  would  be  excess  of  nutrients,  or 
the  whole  sum  would  not  be  expended,  and  there 
would  be  a  margin  available  for  the  purchase  of 
fruit  and  other  luxuries. 

In  practice,  the  food  would  not  be  of  the  uniform 
character  assumed  above.  The  vegetable  portion 
would  probably  include  at  least  1  lb.  of  bread  and 
from  1  to  2  lb.  of  potatoes  per  day.  This  would 
create  a  demand  for  butter,  and  probably  a  part 
of  the  meat  would  be  in  the  form  of  bacon.  These 
modifications  would  not  only  give  variety  to  the 
food,  but  would  also  substantially  increase  the  fuel 
value  and  still  leave  an  excess  of  protein.  This 
may  be  exemplified  as  follows  : — 


(1)  that  the  fuel  value  of  the  meat  plus  that  of  the  flour 
shall  be  together  equal  to  2,800  kal.  per  day  ;  (2)  that  the 
cost  of  the  meat  plus  that  of  flour  shall  be  together  equal 
to  5s.  per  week,  or  8*57  pence  per  day.  Taking  the  cost 
of  meat  at  8c?.  per  lb.,  and  of  flour  at  2d.  per  lb.,  these  two 
propositions  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  equations  : — 

1040a:-j-16452/=2800  :  Sx-{-2yz=z8-57. 
a;=0-767  lb.  of  meat  and  1/=  1*218  lb.  of  flour  per  day. 
0-767  x7  X  8=42-95  pence=35.  Id.  per  week  for  meat. 
1-218x7x2=17-05      „    =ls.  5d.         „         „      flour. 


210 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Food  (per  week). 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

7  lb.  bread,  at  l^d.  .      . 
15   „   potatoes,  at  ^d. 

2  „   flour,  at  2d.      .      . 

3  „   meat,  at  8d.     .      . 
1    „   bacon,  at  8d.    . 

^    „    butter,  at  Is.    . 

s.       d. 
0   101 

0  n 

0     4 
2     0 
0     8 
0     6 

Oz. 

10-3 
43 
3-6 
71 
1-5 

Kal. 
8,505 
4,650 
3,290 
3,120 
2,795 
1,802 

Total 

5     0 

26-8 

24,162 

Requirements 

21-0 

19,600 

Thus  arranged,  the  food  contains  considerable 
excess  both  of  protein  and  of  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients,  and  further  modifications  are,  therefore, 
both  possible  and  desirable. 

In  families,  especially  in  those  which  include 
young  children,  milk  and  sugar,  rice,  sago  and 
sometimes  oatmeal  would  probably  be  used.  The 
substitution  of  jam  or  treacle  for  part  of  the  butter 
would  not  necessarily  have  much  effect  upon  either 
the  cost  or  the  nutritive  value  of  the  whole  ration. 
Fruit  and  fresh  vegetables  should  be  used  ;  but 
they  are  at  once  relatively  expensive  and  deficient 
in  nutrients,  and  probably  not  more  than  about  Id. 
per  day  could  be  spared  for  this  item  out  of  6s.  per 
week.  The  other  items  might  be  adjusted  as 
follows  : — 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


211 


Food  (per  week). 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

5  lb.  bread      . 
7    „   potatoes. 
1^  „   oatmeal  . 
1    „   rice    .      . 

1  „   sugar.      . 
?    „   fruit  .      . 

2  „   meat. 
1    „   bacon 

1    „    butter      . 
3^  pints  milk  . 

s.      d. 

0  n\ 

0     3i 

0     2 
0     7  / 
14^ 

0     6   [2/IU 
0     61) 

Oz. 

7-4\ 

2-0 

ll    14.5 
4.7x 

':!8.6 

2-4) 

Kal. 
6,075\ 

2  170 
2'79ol  14^25 

1,630  ^ 
1,860 

2,080x 

2,795    ^_^ 
1,802  r8'009 

1,332J 

Total  .      . 

5     OJ 

231 

22,534 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  though  three-fifths  of 
the  total  cost  of  the  ration  is  spent  on  animal  pro- 
ducts, more  than  two-thirds  of  the  nutrients  are 
derived  from  the  vegetable  foods.  Nothing  has 
been  allowed  for  tea,  which  is  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, a  food  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  small 
amount  of  nutrients  in  the  fresh  fruit  has  been 
ignored.  The  nutrients  are  still  in  excess  of  the 
requirements  ;  but,  provided  the  expenditure  is 
kept  within  the  given  limits,  it  is  generally  desir- 
able that  there  should  be  a  slight  excess  of  nutrients 
so  as  to  provide  a  margin  for  contingencies. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  ration  is  for 
one  man,  and  that,  to  find  the  ration  for  a  family, 
the  quantities  of  each  item  must  be  multiplied  by 
the  factors  previously  given  (p.  207).  In  the  case 
supposed,  of  a  man  with  a  wife  and  three  children — 
the  requirements  of  the  woman  and  children  being 


212  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

jointly  equal  to  those  of  two  men — the  quantities 
would  be  three  times  those  given  above,  and  the 
cost  would  also  be  three  times  as  great,  viz.  I65. 
per  week. 

Five  shillings  per  week  is  just  a  little  over  S^d, 
per  day,  or,  allowing  three  meals  per  day,  a  little 
less  than  3d.  for  each  meal.  But  the  meat  and 
fruit — ^the  two  most  expensive  items — ^are  generally 
all  consumed  at  one  meal,  which,  therefore,  costs 
more  than  the  others.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  allow  as  much  as  4Jd^.  for  dinner,  which 
leaves  only  2d.  each  for  breakfast  and  supper  ;  but 
if  the  dinner  can  be  contrived  for  3  Jc?.  there  will  be 
2id.  available  for  each  of  the  other  meals. 

It  is  important  that  the  N.  ratio  of  each  day's 
food  should  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible  with 
that  of  the  specified  diet.  The  same  rule  applies — 
though  not,  perhaps,  rigidly — ^to  each  separate 
meal.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  use  eggs,  fish, 
bacon  or  meat  and  milk  at  each  ;  but  when  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  animal  foods  are  consumed  at  one 
meal  it  is  often  impossible  to  adjust  the  N. 
ratios  properly.  Oatmeal,  cheese  and  legumes  are 
very  useful  in  this  connexion  in  cases  where  the 
margin  of  expenditure  is  very  narrow. 

The  following  is  a  possible  way  of  dividing  up  the 
day 's  rations  so  as  to  provide  sufficient  nutrients  (1 
oz.  of  protein  and  933  kal.  fuel  value)  at  each  meal, 
without  exceeding  the  stipulated  cost. 


FAMILIAR  DIET 

Bbea£fast. 


213 


Food. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

4  oz.  oatmeal   . 
4    „    bread 

2  „    sugar.      .      .      . 

3  „    milk  .... 
^    „    butter      .      .      . 

d. 
0-50 
0-37 
0-25 
0-23 
0-37 

Oz. 
0-64 
0-36 

0-11 

Kal. 
465 
304 
232 
57 
112 

1-72 

1-11 

1,170 

Dinner  (1). 


Food. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

4  oz.  meat  .... 

2  lb.  potatoes  . 

i   „   apples       .      .      . 

d. 

2-0 
1-0 
1-0 

Oz. 
0-60 
0-58 
0-02 

Kal. 
260 
620 
110 

4-0 

1-20 

990 

Or  Dinner  (2). 


4  oz.  meat  . 

1  lb.  potatoes 
\   „   apples 

2  oz.  rice  . 
4  „  milk  . 
1    „  sugar  . 


Cost. 


d. 
2-00 
0-50 
1-00 
0-25 
0-30 
0-12 


4-17 


Protein. 


Oz. 
0-60 
0-29 
0-02 
0-16 
0-14 


1-21 


Fuel  Value. 


Kal. 
260 
310 
110 
204 
76 
116 


1,076 


214 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

Supper. 


Food. 


1  lb.  bread. 

2  oz.  bacon 

3  „   milk   . 
1    „   sugar. 


Cost. 


d. 
0-75 
1-00 
0-23 
0-12 


2-10 


Protein. 


Oz. 
0-73 
0-18 
0-10 


1-01 


Fuel  Value. 


Kal. 
608 
349 
57 
116 


1,130 


Summary  of  Day's  Rations. 


Food. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

Breakfast    .... 
Dinner  (2)  .      .      .      . 
Supper 

d. 
1-72 
4-17 
2-10 

Oz. 
Ml 
1-20 
MO 

Kai. 
1,170 
1,076 
1,130 

7-99 

3-41             3,376 

Total  requirements 

— 

3-00             2,800 

Arranged  as  above,  the  three  meals  contain 
about  10  per  cent,  more  nutrients  than  is  actually 
required.  The  total  cost  amounts  only  to  8c?.  ;  and 
if  the  dinner  were  as  in  (1)  it  would  be  actually  a 
little  less.  On  the  other  hand,  if  oatmeal  were  not 
used,  breakfast  might  be  the  same  as  supper,  but 
the  cost  would  be  thereby  increased  nearly  to  the 
limit. 


FAMILIAR  DIET  215 

The  foregoing  may  be  regarded  as  a  typical  ex- 
ample, but  it  is  capable  of  almost  infinite  variation. 
Thus,  beef,  mutton,  pork,  lamb  and  veal  may 
replace  each  other  according  to  season  and  the 
taste  of  the  individual.  There  are  several  different 
cuts  of  each,  and  they  may  be  cooked  in  different 
ways.  Poultry  will  probably  be  found  too  expen- 
sive for  more  than  occasional  use  ;  but  fish  may 
be  substituted  for  meat  once  a  week  or  oftener. 
Ehubarb,  gooseberries,  cherries,  strawberries, 
currants,  plums,  bananas,  apples,  pears,  water- 
melons, tomatoes  and  oranges  succeed  each  other 
throughout  the  year.  Cherries,  strawberries,  and 
possibly  also  currants,  will  probably  be  found  too 
expensive  except  in  times  of  glut ;  but  with  sup- 
plies from  abroad,  the  cheaper  fruits  have  a  long 
season.  Figs,  prunes,  dates,  dried  currants  and 
raisins,  and  also  dried  apples,  may  be  used  in  the 
dead  season  if  bottled  or  canned  fruits  are  not 
available.  In  one  way  or  another,  a  constant  and 
changing  supply  of  fruit  may  be  maintained  through- 
out the  year. 

From  time  to  time  it  may  be  found  convenient 
and  desirable  to  substitute  turnips,  carrots,  cabbage, 
or  other  fresh  vegetables  for  fruit.  Green  peas, 
cauliflowers,  onions,  leeks,  etc.,  are  more  expen- 
sive, but  when  served  with  white  sauce  or  similar 
dressing,  they  may  be  substituted  for  the  fruit  and 
pudding.  The  rice,  milk,  sugar,  and  apples  in 
dinner  (2)  cost  1-67  pence,  contain  0-32  oz.  of  pro- 
tein and  have  a  fuel  value  of  506  kal.  The  cost 
and  nutrients  of  a  dish  of  cauliflower  with  white 
sauce  are  approximately  as  follows  : — 


216 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  cauliflower  (21b.)     . 
White  sauce — 

1  oz.  flour     .      .      . 

1    „    butter 

^  pint  milk  . 

d. 
3-00 

013 
0-75 
0-75 

Oz. 
0-58 

0-11 

0-35 

Kal. 
280 

103 
225 
189 

Total  for  3  men  . 

4-63 

1-04 

797 

Total  for  1  man  . 

1-54 

0-34 

266 

When  pudding  is  used,  the  rice  may  be  replaced 
by  cornflour,  arrowroot,  sago  or  tapioca.  These 
foods,  however,  are  more  expensive  than  rice  ;  and 
as  they  are  deficient  in  protein,  they  should  be 
prepared  with  eggs  or  with  a  larger  quantity  of  milk. 

The  point  is  chiefly  of  importance  in  connexion 
with  the  feeding  of  children.  The  N.  ratio  of  the 
diet  for  young  children  should  be  rather  higher 
than  for  adults.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  popular 
notion  that  children  do  not  require  much  meat ; 
they  are  often  deprived  of  their  fair  share  of  the 
more  nitrogenous  items  of  the  food,  and  given  a 
larger  dose  of  puddings  and  sweets.  This  may  be 
agreeable  to  the  taste  of  the  youngsters,  and  at  the 
same  time  satisfactory  from  a  dietetic  point  of  view, 
provided  the  concoction  is  a  genuine  milk  pudding 
and  not  a  mere  starch  pudding. 

The  use  of  eggs  or  additional  quantities  of  milk 
adds  to  the  cost  of  the  dishes  even  more  than  the 
difference  in  the  price  of  the  cereal  or  farinaceous 
food.     The  cost  and  composition  of  a  tapioca  pud- 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


217 


ding  prepared  according   to   the   cookery    book  ^ 
work  out  approximately  as  follows  : — 

Tapioca  Pudding 
(J or  5  persons). 


Ingredients. 

C08t.2 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

3  oz.  tapioca    . 

2    „    butter      .      .      . 
J  lb.  sugar  .... 
1  qt.  milk   .... 

4  eggs  (say  i  lb.)  .      . 

d. 

0-56 
1-50 
0-50 
3-00 
4-00 

Oz. 
0-08 

1-40 
1-05 

Kal. 
412 
451 
465 
757 
307 

Total  for  5  persons 

9-56 

2-63 

2,392 

For  1  person 

1-91 

0-51 

478 

For  1  penny. 

1 

0-26 

250 

The  same  authority  gives,  for  a  plain  rice  pud- 
ding, J  lb.  rice  boiled  soft  and  served  with  jam. 
This  would  work  out  as  follows  : — 

Plain  Rice  Puddinq 
(for  5  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Proteia. 

Fuel  Value. 

^  lb.  rice     .      . 
h   .,   jam     .      .      . 

d. 
1 
1 

Oz. 
0-64 

Kal. 
815 
232 

Total  for  5  persons. 

2-0 

0.64 

1,047 

Total  for  1  person  . 

0-4 

0-13 

209 

Total  for  1  penny   . 

1 

0-32 

523 

^  Mrs.  Bee  ton. 

*  The  cost  is  calculated  from  the  prices  given  in  previous 
chapters  and  does  not  correspond  with  the  cookery  book 
estimate. 


218  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

The  tapioca  pudding  contains  nearly  four  times 
as  much  protein  and  has  twice  the  fuel  value  of  the 
plain  rice  pudding,  but  it  costs  nearly  five  times  as 
much.  For  Id.  the  plain  rice  pudding  yields  0-32 
oz.  of  protein  and  523  kal.,  whereas  for  the  same 
sum  the  tapioca  pudding  yields  only  0-26  oz.  pro- 
tein and  250  kal.  Prepared  as  above,  the  tapioca 
pudding  is  doubtless  the  more  palatable,  and  it  is 
certainly  the  more  nutritious  and  more  expensive 
of  the  two.  If  the  tapioca  in  the  above  recipe 
were  replaced  by  3  oz.  of  rice,  the  resulting  pudding 
would  be  slightly  more  nutritious  and  less  expensive 
than  the  tapioca  pudding. 

There  is,  of  course,  an  almost  endless  variety  of 
other  puddings,  but  they  may  all  be  referred  to 
one  or  other  of  two  types,  viz.  (1)  those  in  which 
the  fundamental  substance  is  wheat  flour,  or  flour 
and  fat,  and  (2)  those  in  which  it  is  bread. 

Puddings  made  chiefly  of  wheat  flour  may  be 
divided  into  (a)  the  so-called  batter  puddings,  e.g. 
Yorkshire  pudding  and  the  sweetened  varieties  of 
the  same,  and  (b)  the  dough  puddings,  e.g.  dump- 
lings, rolypoly,  etc.  The  "  boiled  pastry "  for 
beefsteak  pudding  belongs  to  the  last  variety. 

Bread  puddings  are,  as  a  rule,  much  alike  so  far 
as  the  fundamental  substance  is  concerned  ;  they 
differ  chiefly  in  regard  to  the  fruity  element 
that  is  incorporated.  The  latter  usually  consists 
of  currants,  raisins,  figs  or  dates,  but  jam,  marma- 
lade, or  treacle  may  be  substituted  for  the  same. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  approximate 
cost  and  composition  of  some  of  these  concoctions 
as  recommended  by  the  cookery  books  : — 


FAMILIAR  DIET 

Yorkshire  PuDDiNa 
Qor  2  persons).^ 


219 


Ingredients. 


4  oz.  flour  . 
1  egg  (2  oz.) 
i  pint  milk. 


Cost. 


d. 
0-50 
1-00 
0-75 


Protein. 


Oz. 
0-45 
0-26 
0-35 


Fuel  Value. 


Kal. 
411 

77 
189 


Total  for  2  men 


Total  for  1  man 


2-25 


112 


1-06 


0-63 


677 


338 


Total  for  1  penny 


10 


0-47 


300 


Sweet  Batter  Pudding 
[for  4  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value, 

8  OZ.  flour  .... 
2  eggs  (4  oz.)   ..     . 

1  pint  milk. 

2  oz.  currants 

d. 
1-0 
2-0 
1-5 
0-5 

Oz. 
0-90 
0-52 
0-70 
0-05 

Kal. 
822 
154 
378 
187 

Total  for  4  men. 

50 

217 

1.541 

Total  for  1  man     . 

1-25 

0-54 

385 

Total  for  1  penny   . 

1-0 

0-43 

308 

*  The  number  of  persons  for  which  the  quantities  are 
suitable  is  the  cookery  book  estimate ;  necessarily  a  very 
rough  one. 


220 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

Boiled  Pastby 
(Jor  6  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  flour   .... 
6  oz.  beef  suet. 

d. 
2-0 
2-6 

Oz. 

1-79 

0-28 

Kal. 
1,645 
1,327 

Total  for  6  men 

4-6 

2-07 

2,972 

Total  for  1  man 

0-77 

0-35 

495 

Total  for  1  penny   . 

1-0 

0-45 

646 

Currant  Dttmplino 

{for  7  persons). 

Ingredients.                j        Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  flour   .... 
6  oz.  beef  suet. 
8    „    currants  . 

d. 
2-0 
2-6 
20 

Oz. 
1-79 
0-28 
0-19 

Kal, 
1,645 
1,327 

747 

Total  for  7  men 

6-6 

2-26 

3,719 

Totol  for  1  man 

0-94 

0-32 

531 

Total  for  1  penny   . 

1-0 

0-34 

564 

The  boiled  pastry  may  be  used  for  suet  dump- 
lings, currant  dumplings,  rolypoly  pudding,  apple 
dumpling,  beefsteak  pudding,  etc.  Currant  dump- 
ling is  given  as  an  example,  showing  the  difference 
due  to  the  addition  of  the  other  ingredient. 


FAMILIAR  DIET 

Beead  Pudding  (common) 
(Jor  3  persona). 


221 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  bread 
3  oz.  sugar 

1  egg  (2  oz.)     .      .      . 
\  pint  milk. 

2  oz.  currants  . 
2    „    raisins 

d. 
0-75 
0-37 
1-00 
0-37 
0-50 
0-50 

Oz. 
0-73 

0-26 
0-17 
0-05 
0-05 

Kal. 
608 
349 
77 
95 
181 
187 

Total  for  3  men 

3-49 

1'26 

1,497 

Total  for  1  man 

1-16 

0-42 

499 

Total  for  1  penny   . 

1-0 

0-36 

429 

Fig  Pudding 
{for  2  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

6  OZ.  bread. 
1|  oz.  sugar 

2  oz.  butter 

4    „    milk  .... 

3  „    figs     .      .      .      . 

d. 
0-56 
0-19 
1-50 
0-30 
0-56 

Oz. 
0-55 

0-02 
0-13 
0-13 

Kal. 
455 
174 
451 

75.     . 
276 

Total  for  2  men 

311 

0-83 

1,431 

Total  for  1  man 

1-55 

0-41 

715 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-26 

460 

222 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 


Mabmalade  Pudding 
(for  3  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  bread        .      .      . 
J  pint  milk.      .     . 

1  oz.  sugar 

2  eggs  (4  oz.)    .      .      . 
J  lb.  marmalade    . 

d. 
0-75 
0-75 
012 
2-00 
1-00 

Oz. 
0-73 
0-35 

0-52 
0-02 

Kal. 
608 
189 
116 
153 
232 

Total  for  3  men 

4-62 

1-62 

1,298 

Total  for  1  man 

1-54 

0-54 

433 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-35 

281 

Tre 

ACLE    PUDD 

or  1  person 

ING 

Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

3  oz.  bread. 
1    „    butter 

1  „    treacle     . 

2  „    milk  .... 

d. 
0-28 
0-75 
019 
015 

Oz. 
0-28 
0-01 
0-10 
0-07 

Kal. 

228 

225 

70 

38 

Total  for  1  man 

1-37 

0-46 

561 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-33 

409 

Some,  or  perhaps  all,  of  these  recipes  might  be 
modified  in  such  a  way  as  to  reduce,  or  increase,  the 
cost.  The  puddings  might  be  called  by  the  same 
names,  but  they  would  not  contain  the  same  amounts 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


223 


of  nutrients.  The  examples  given  may  be  taken  as 
typical,  and  any  particular  cases  may  be  examined 
in  the  same  way. 

To  facilitate  comparison,  the  results  have  been 
summarized  in  the  following  table  : — 


Analysis  op  Pudding  Recipes  Summarized, 


For  One  Man. 

For  One 

)  Penny. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel"^ 
Value. 

Protein. 

Fuel 
Value. 

d. 

Oz. 

Kal. 

Oz. 

Kal. 

Plain  rice  pudding     . 

0-40 

0-13 

209 

0-32 

523 

Tapioca  pudding 

1-91 

0-51 

478 

0-26 

250 

Yorkshire  pudding    . 

M2 

0-53 

338 

0-47 

300 

Sweet  batter  pudding 

1-25 

0-54 

385 

0-43 

308 

Boiled  pastry. 

0-77 

0-35 

495 

0-45 

646 

Currant  dumpling 

0-94 

0-32 

531 

0-34 

564 

Bread  pudding     . 

M6 

0-42 

499 

0-36 

429 

Fig  pudding    . 

1-55 

0-41 

715 

0-26 

460 

Marmalade  pudding  . 

1-54 

0-54 

433 

0-35 

281 

Treacle  pudding  . 

1-37 

0-46 

561 

0-33 

409 

Since  the  meat  and  potatoes  cost  from  2^d.  to  3d,, 
not  more  than  from  Hd.  to  2d.  can  be  spent  on 
pudding  and  fruit  jointly.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  if  tapioca  pudding,  prepared  as  above,  be  used, 
fruit  must  be  dispensed  with.  The  cost  of  the  plain 
rice  pudding,  including  the  jam  to  be  used  along 
with  it,  amounts  to  less  than  ^d.  per  head,  so  at 
least  Id.  might  be  spent  on  fruit.  The  boiled  pastry 
costs  about  |c?.,  so  a  similar  amount  might  be  spent 
on  apples  or  other  fruit  to  be  incorporated  with  it. 
The  cost  of  the  currant  dumpling,  sweet  batter. 


224  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

bread  and  fig  puddings-  includes  that  of  the  fruit 
they  contain.  The  marmalade  and  treacle  in  the 
puddings  called  by  these  names,  and  the  jam  in  roly- 
poly  would  probably  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  for 
fruit,  though  not  so  desirable  from  a  hygienic  point 
of  view. 

Flavouring,  condiments,  baking  powder,  etc.,  in 
the  various  recipes  are  not  noticed  here,  as  they  are 
not,  properly  speaking,  foods.  The  cost  of  such  as 
are  essential  is  almost  neghgible,  though  indefinite 
sums  may  be  spent  on  essences,  etc.,  which  add 
nothing  to  the  nutrients. 

The  day's  rations  can  be  further  varied  by  the 
use  of  soup,  which  may  be  substituted  either  for 
meat  and  potatoes,  or,  preferably,  for  pudding,  if 
stock  or  materials  for  making  it  be  available. 

The  stock  generally  consists  of  meat  extract,  the 
composition  of  which,  it  has  been  shown,  is  extremely 
variable.  The  most  important  constituents  are  the 
amino-bodies  and  gelatin  (p.  127),  derived  from  the 
albuminoids.  Stock  made  from  meat  has  a  richer 
flavour  and  contains  more  amino-bodies  than  that 
made  from  bones.  The  amount  of  gelatin  in  the 
stock  depends  largely  upon  the  method  of  prepara- 
tion ;  when  the  materials  are  subjected  to  prolonged 
boiling,  it  is  usually  considerable,  but  if  stewed  at  a 
low  temperature  it  may  be  much  less.  If  the  pro- 
portion of  gelatin  exceed  1  per  cent.,  the  stock  will 
soHdify  on  cooling.  This  is  commonly  regarded  as 
an  indication  that  it  is  "  very  rich,"  but  it  is  by  no 
means  reUable,  and  in  any  case  it  affords  no  indica- 
tion of  the  amount  of  amino-bodies. 

The  average  composition  of  stock  may  perhaps 
be  judged  from  the  following  analysis  of  a  sample 
of  beef  tea  prepared  at  St.  Thomas'  Hospital. 


FAMILIAR  DIET  225 

Analysis  of  Beef  Tea. 


Water    ..... 
Fat 

Insoluble  protein  and  meat  fibre 
Soluble  protein  and  gelatin 
Meat  bases  (amino-bodies) 
Non-nitrogenous  extract  . 
Mineral  salts  .... 


Per  cent. 
96-00 

0-20 

0-21 

1-34 

0-61 

0-84 

0-77 


99-97 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  soHds  only  amount 
to  4  per  cent.,  and  the  nutritive  matters,  including 
gelatin  and  meat  bases,  only  to  3-23  per  cent. 

The  sum  of  55.  per  week  will  not,  therefore,  admit 
of  meat,  or  even  bones,  being  specially  purchased 
for  the  preparation  of  stock  and  afterwards  dis- 
carded ;  but  the  water  in  which  meat,  ham,  fowls, 
etc.,  have  been  boiled,  or  the  bones  which  are  in- 
cluded with  many  joints  of  meat,  may  be  used.  The 
cost  of  the  bones  has  already  been  discounted  in  the 
price  of  the  meat,  and  no  further  expenditure  is 
therefore  involved  in  using  them  for  this  purpose. 

For  certain  kinds  of  soup,  milk  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  meat  stock.  It  has  a  much  higher  nutritive 
value,  but  lacks  the  agreeable  flavour,  odour  and 
stimulating  effects  of  the  latter  ;  and,  of  course,  it 
cannot  be  used  for  soups  which  contain  fresh 
vegetables  or  acid  substances  of  any  kind. 

For  present  purposes,  stock  soups  may  be  divided 
into  three  groups,  viz.,  (a)  clear  soups  ;  (6)  vegetable 
soups  ;  (c)  thick  soups.  Clear  soups  consist  essenti- 
ally of  the  stock  or  meat  extract,  usually  coloured 
with  caramel,  and  flavoured  in  various  ways.  Fresh 
vegetables  are  sometimes  used  for  the  latter  purpose, 
but  they  are  removed  before  the  soup  is  served.    If 


226  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

they  are  not  removed,  the  soup  belongs  to  class  (h) 
here  called  vegetable  soups.  This  may  be  regarded 
merely  as  a  way  of  substituting  fresh  vegetables  for 
fruit,  the  stock  serving  as  a  kind  of  sauce. 

The  soups  of  class  (c)  may,  and  usually  do,  also 
contain  vegetables.  The  essential  difference  is  that 
the  stock,  in  this  case,  is  thickened  by  the  addition 
of  substantial  quantities  of  various  other  foods, 
e.g.  wheat  flour,  vermicelli,  barley,  rice,  peas,  len- 
tils, potatoes,  etc.  These  soups  are  generally  re- 
ferred to  by  the  name  of  the  thickening  ingredient, 
e.g.  potato  soup,  rice  soup,  and  so  on.  This  is 
proper,  because  the  soups  owe  their  nourishing  pro- 
perties chiefly  to  the  presence  of  the  thickening 
ingredient.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  is, 
in  effect,  simply  another  way  of  preparing  these 
foods — stock  being  used  instead  of  milk — and  that, 
just  as  the  vegetable  soups  may  be  used  as  substi- 
tutes for  fruit,  so  the  thick  soups  may  be  used  as 
substitutes  for  the  puddings,  or,  if  they  contain 
fresh  vegetables,  for  pudding  and  fruit. 

In  the  following  analyses,  showing  the  approxi- 
mate cost  and  composition  of  some  of  the  common 
soups  as  recommended  by  the  cookery  books,  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  stock  is  taken  as  equal  to  0-5 
oz.  of  protein  and  100  kal.  fuel  value  per  quart. 
The  money  value  is  taken  as  Id.  per  quart,  though 
if  this  has  been  previously  discounted,  the  actual 
9Q^t  will  be  zero, 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


227 


Vegetable  Soup 
{for  8  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

2  lb.  turnips 

1  „    carrots 

2  „    cabbage    . 
i   „    onions 

4  quarts  stock 

I     1-0 

1-0 
0-5 
4-0 

Oz. 
0-28 
0-14 
0-45 
0-11 
2-00 

Kal. 
250 
160 
250 
102 
400 

Total  for  8  men 

6-50 

2-98 

1,162 

Total  for  I  man 

0-81 

0-37 

145 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-46 

179 

Babley  Broth 

{for  8  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost.               Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

2  lb.  turnips     . 

1  „    carrots 

2  „    cabbage    . 
\   „    onions 

1    „    barley       .      .      . 
4  quarts  stock. 

d.                      Oz. 

I    1-0            ^-2^ 

1      ^^                  0-14 
1-0                 0-45 
0-5                 0-11 
2-0                  1-36 
4-0          1        2-00 

Kal. 
250 
160 
250 
102 
1,650 
400 

Total  for  8  men 

8-5 

4-34 

2,812 

Total  for  1  man 

1-06               0-54 

351 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-51 

331 

228 


ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

Potato  Soup 
{for  2  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  potatoes  . 
1  oz.  butter 
4    „    onions 
1  quart  stock   . 

d. 
0-50 
0-75 
0-25 
1-00 

Oz. 
0-29 
0-01 
0-05 
0-50 

Kal. 
310 
225 
51 
100 

Total  for  2  men 

2-50 

0-85 

686 

Total  for  1  man 

1-25 

0-43 

343 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

1-0 

0-34 

274 

Lentil  Soup 
{for  6  persons). 


Ingredients. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fuel  Value. 

1  lb.  lentils       .      .      . 

2  oz.  dripping  .      .      . 

1  lb.  carrots 

2  lb.    turnips  . 
4  oz.  onions 

6  pints  water    . 

d. 
2-00 
1-00 

I      1-00 

0-25 

Oz. 
3-97 

0-14 
0-28 
0-05 

Kal. 

1,670 

527 

160 

250 

51 

Total  for  6  men       . 

4-25 

4-44 

2,558 

Total  for  1  man 

0-71 

0-74 

426 

Total  for  1  penny    . 

100 

104 

602 

MMlLlAR  DIET  22^ 

Analyses  of  Soup  Recipes  Summabized. 


For  One  Man. 

For  One  Penny. 

Cost. 

T.    .  •           Fuel 
Protein.       y^^^^ 

Protein. 

Fuel 
Value. 

Vegetable  soup 
Barley  broth     . 
Potato  soup 
Lentil  soup . 

d. 
0-81 
1-06 
1-25 
0-71 

Oz.            Kal. 
0-37     ;      145 
0-54         351 
0-43     '     343 
0-74     i     426 
1 

Oz. 
0-46 
0-51 
0-34 
1-04 

Kal. 
179 
331 

274 
602 

The  vegetable  soup  here  specified  is  not  a  cookery 
book  recipe,  but  is  merely  the  barley  broth  minus 
the  barley.  It  may,  however,  be  taken  as  a  type  of 
vegetable  soup,  and  when  compared  with  barley 
broth,  shows  the  differences  due  to  the  thickening. 
Potato  soup  costs  more  per  head  than  any  of  the 
others  mentioned ;  it  yields  rather  more  nourish- 
ment than  the  vegetable  soup,  for  a  similar  expendi- 
ture, but  is  inferior  to  the  barley  broth  both  as 
regards  cost  and  composition. 

Lentil  soup  costs  less  than  any  of  the  others,  and 
it  contains  much  larger  amounts  of  nourishment. 
Made  as  above,  with  pure  water  instead  of  stock, 
it  cannot  have  the  stimulating  effects  due  to  amino 
compounds.  It  lacks  also  the  rich  appetizing  flavour 
and  odour  of  meat  stock,  and  the  strong  legumin- 
ous taste  of  the  lentils  predominates.  To  disguise 
this,  a  quantity  of  wheat  flour  or  other  starchy 
matter  is  sometimes  added  ;  this,  of  course,  reduces 
the  N.  ratio  of  the  soup,  and  renders  the  use  of 
stock  more  than  ever  advisable.  It  is  deserving  of 
special  attention,  because  it  is  one  of  the  few  ways 


s3o  Economy  of  food 

in  which  lentils  are  commonly  used  in  this  country. 
In  view  of  the  large  proportion  of  protein  which  it 
contains,  this  soup  may  be  substituted  for  meat  and 
potatoes  on  a  "  jour  maigre  "  without  detriment  to 
health,  and  with  great  advantage  from  the  point  of 
view  of  pecuniary  economy. 

The  dinner  may  also  be  varied  by  dispensing 
with  both  pudding  and  soup,  and,  using  appropriate 
quantities,  making  the  meal  off  meat  and  potatoes, 
with  the  usual  allowance  of  Id.  for  fruit  or  fresh 
vegetables.  This  has  the  merit  of  simpHcity,  and 
may  be  adopted  occasionally  when  work  presses ; 
but  it  lacks  variety,  and  is  not  recommended  for 
general  use. 

There  is  not,  in  general,  the  same  demand  for 
variety  as  regards  the  morning  and  evening  meals ; 
and  when  the  monetary  allowance  is  limited  to  2d. 
for  each  meal,  it  is  very  difficult  of  attaiament. 

In  the  typical  examples  (p.  213),  oatmeal  was 
used  at  the  morning  and  bacon  at  the  evening  meal ; 
and  it  was  assumed,  in  the  latter  case,  that  no  butter 
would  be  required.  When  oatmeal  is  not  used,  it 
must  be,  to  a  large  extent,  replaced  by  bread,  pota- 
toes, etc.,  and  if  butter  be  added,  the  cost  is  thereby 
increased.  Bread  and  butter  is  dearer  than  bread 
and  bacon  ;  and  if  eggs,  fish,  cheese,  etc.,  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  latter,  the  cost  is  still  further  in- 
creased, as  the  butter  is  not  then  dispensed  with. 
These  points  are  more  clearly  brought  out  by  the 
following  analyses  : — 


FAMILIAR  DIET 


231 


Analyses  of  Various  Rations  for  Morning  and 
Evening  Meals. 


Food. 

Cost. 

Pro-  1  Fuel 
tein  lvalue. 

1 

Food. 

Cost. 

Pro- 
tein 

Fuel 
Value. 

d. 

Oz. 

Kal. 

d. 

Oz. 

Kal. 

10  oz.  bread 

0-94 

0-92 

759 

1  lb.  potatoes 

0-25 

0-14 

155 

li    „    butter 

0-94 

0-01 

281 

8  oz.  bread  . 

0-75 

0-73 

607 

3  oz.  milk    . 

0-23 

0-11 

57 

1 1  oz.  butter 

0-94 

0-01 

281 

1    „    sugar. 

0-12 

—       116 

3    „    milk  . 
1    „    sugar. 

0-23 
0-12 

Oil 

67 
116 

2-23 

l-04;i,213 

2-29 

0-99 

1,216 

1-00 

1  egg(2oz.) 

0-26 

77 

2  oz.  fish^     . 

0-75 

0-34 

42 

7  oz.  bread  . 

0-66 

0-64 

531 

7    „    bread 

0-66 

0-64 

631 

1    „    butter 

0-75 

0-01  !    225 

1    „    butter 

0-75 

0-01 

225 

3    „    milk  . 

0-23 

0-11  i      67 

3    „    milk  . 

0-23 

0-11 

57 

1    „    sugar. 

0-12 

-i    116 

1    „    sugar. 

0-12 

— 

116 

2-76 

1-02 

1,006 

2-51 

MO 

971 

1  oz.  cheese. 

0-50  0-40 

128 

2  oz.  peanuts'* 

0-37 

0-37 

242 

7    „    bread  . 

0-66  0-64 

531 

7    „    bread  . 

0-66 

0-64 

531 

1    „    butter 

0-75|0-01 

225 

1    „   butter 

0-75 

0-01 

225 

3    „    milk    . 

0-23  0-11 

57 

3    „   milk    . 

0-23 

0-11 

57 

1    „    sugar  . 

012    — 

116 

1    „    sugar  . 

0-12 

— 

116 

2-26  M6 

1,057 

213 

M3 

1,171 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  these  various  rations 
runs  from  about  2 Jd^.  to  2|d^.  each,  or  on  the  average, 
say  6d.  for  two.  This  leaves  only  3JcZ.  for  the  dinner, 
and  certain  restrictions  may  be  necessary  in  order 
to  keep  within  the  Hmit  of  S^d.  On  pecuniary 
grounds,  therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  moderate 
quantity  of  oatmeal  once  per  day,  unless  it  be  found 

1  Cod-steak  at  &d.  per  lb. 

*  For  methods  of  using,  see  vegetarian  cookery  books. 


232  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

harmful  or  disagreeable.  For  the  same  reason, 
bacon  should  be  used  more  frequently  than  fish, 
eggs,  etc. 

Other  solutions  of  this  problem  which  will  doubt- 
less suggest  themselves  to  the  skilful  housekeeper, 
may  be  investigated  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
examples  given  above,  however,  are  probably  suffi- 
cient for  present  purposes,  having  regard  to  the 
common  practice  in  English  households  of  the  class 
in  question. 

An  expenditure  of  5s.  per  (man)  head  per  week 
on  food  may  be  a  common  case,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  general.  A  man  who  has  a  smaller  income 
or  a  larger  family  than  was  supposed  could  not 
afford,  under  similar  conditions,  to  spend  so  much  ; 
whereas  one  who  has  a  larger  income  or  a  smaller 
family  might  spend  more.  In  the  former  case,  the 
difficulty  of  satisfying  the  requirements  and  desires 
of  the  family  would  be  increased ;  in  the  latter, 
there  would  be  greater  Uberty  of  choice  as  regards 
both  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food. 

If,  out  of  a  sum  of  45.  per  week,  or  say  Id.  per 
day,  4Jc?.  were  allowed  for  dinner,  only  2jcZ.  would 
remain  for  the  other  two  meals.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  2d.  each  be  allowed  for  the  morning  and 
evening  meals,  only  Sd.  remains  for  dinner.  The 
latter  is  obviously  the  better  arrangement  of  the 
two  ;  and,  though  it  is  probably  not  the  best  under 
all  circumstances,  it  may  be  taken  as  the  basis  of 
discussion. 

As  regards  the  morning  and  evening  meals,  not 
much  need  be  added  to  the  data  previously  given. 
It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  use  of  oatmeal  be- 
comes more  than  ever  desirable ;  and  that,  failing 
this,  the  proportion  of  butter  must  be  considerably 


FAMILIAR  DIET  233 

reduced.  By  substituting  margarine  for  butter,  a 
certain  saving  can  be  effected  in  this  direction. 

It  is  in  regard  to  the  dinner  that  the  greatest 
difficulty  will  be  experienced.  Something  must  be 
sacrificed.  Probably,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  fruit 
and  fresh  vegetables  would  be  regarded  as  the  item 
that  can  be  most  easily  dispensed  with. 

The  simplest  solution,  on  paper,  would  be  to 
reduce  the  dinner  to  meat  and  potatoes,  as  in  the 
typical  case  1  (p.  213).  That  ration  contains  the 
required  amounts  of  nutrients,  and  does  not  exceed 
the  stipulated  cost,  but  it  lacks  variety.  There  are, 
however,  several  ways  in  which  it  may  be  varied ; 
as,  for  instance,  by  substituting  soup  and  bread, 
soup  and  pudding,  potatoes  and  herring  or  dried 
fish,  or  smaller  quantities  of  the  last  and  pudding. 
On  reference  to  the  figures  given  in  the  various 
tables,  it  will  be  found  that  many  combinations  of 
this  kind  can  be  arranged  to  give  the  required 
amounts  of  nutrients  at  a  cost  of  from  Ijc?.  to  2cZ. 
per  day.  There  is  thus  a  saving  of  about  Id. ;  and 
if  some  such  variation  be  adopted  twice  a  week,  a 
dinner  on  the  5s.  scale  can  be  obtained  on  two  other 
days,  and  the  plain  meat  and  potatoes  on  the  three 
remaining  days.  This  not  only  provides  variety, 
but  also  a  certain  amount  of  fruit  and  fresh  vege- 
tables which  are  so  much  esteemed  for  their 
hygienic  properties. 

An  allowance  of  Ss.  per  (man)  head,  per  week,  is 
about  the  least  that  life  can  be  sustained  on  in  the 
towns.  Those  who  subsist  on  this  amount  are 
classed  by  Mr.  Booth  as  the  very  poorest. 

Three  shillings  per  week  is  just  Id.  over  5d.  per 
day,  and  there  are  not  many  different  ways  in  which 
it  can  be  subdivided.    Probably  the  most  conveni- 


234  ECONOMY  OP  FOOD 

ent  general  arrangement  would  be  to  allow  l^.  each 
for  the  morning  and  evening  meals,  and  2d.  for  the 
midday  repast.  With  so  meagre  an  allowance,  it 
is  obvious  that  not  only  such  comparative  luxuries 
as  fruit  and  fresh  vegetables  must  be  entirely 
dispensed  with,  but  even  the  use  of  meat  must  be 
to  a  large  extent  discontinued.  The  smaller  the 
amount  of  money  available,  the  larger  must  be 
the  proportion  of  the  diet  derived  from  cereals  and 
legumes,  e.g.  wheat,  oats,  lentils  and  peas. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  give  further  examples 
relating  to  particular  cases  which  the  reader  can 
investigate  for  himself.  Those  given  above,  the 
tables  and  data  in  various  parts  of  the  book,  have 
been  constructed  chiefly  to  that  end. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
SPECIAL  DIET 

I  commend,  rather,  some  diet  for  certain 
seasons  than  frequent  use  of  physic,  except  it  be 
grown  into  a  custom  ;  for  those  diets  alter  the 
body  more  and  trouble  it  less. 

Bacon. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  in  previous  chapters  are 
to  be  regarded  as  general  rules  for  normal  healthy 
individuals.  They  are  subject  to  modification  in 
special  cases.  InvaHds  usually  have  very  Httle 
appetite ;  being  kept  warm  in  bed  and  unable  to 
exert  themselves,  they  require  less  food  than  similar 
persons  leading  an  ordinary  sedentary  life.  In  some 
cases,  e.g.  certain  stages  of  fevers,  the  quantity 
should  be,  for  other  reasons,  very  small  indeed. 
Convalescents  recovering  from  exhaustion  may 
require  more  than  the  usual  amounts  of  food,  or  of 
certain  nutrients.  The  food  of  invahds  and  con- 
valescents should  be  of  an  easily  digestible  character. 
It  may  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  patients 
will  be  under  proper  medical  care,  and  no  good 
purpose  would  be  served  by  discussing  this  aspect 
of  the  subject  in  a  small  popular  work. 

Mild  disorders  which  require  dietetic  rather  than 
medical  treatment,  and  certain  chronic  cases  which 
are  not  usually  under  constant  medical  supervision, 

286 


236  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

and  in  which  the  treatment  is  mainly  dietetic,  may- 
be briefly  mentioned.  What  is  written  here  may 
help  the  sufferers  to  understand  and  carry  out  the 
directions  they  receive  from  qualified  medical  men, 
and  deter  them  from  the  use  of  quack  medicines. 

Habitual  constipation  is  conspicuously  one  of 
those  complaints  for  which  a  modified  diet  is  neces- 
sary. Common  experience  shows  that  brown  bread, 
oatmeal,  fatty  foods,  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
suitable. 

The  laxative  effects  of  brown  bread,  as  compared 
with  white  bread,  must  be  attributed  to  the  presence 
of  a  certain  amount  of  bran  in  the  former.  The 
effects  of  this  ingredient  are  mainly  mechanical.  It 
may  stimulate  the  action  of  the  bowels  by  mild 
irritation.  At  any  rate,  the  fact  may  be  taken  as 
an  indication  that  the  food  should  not  be  too  con- 
centrated. It  is  a  mistake  to  reject  all  but  the  most 
tender  and  deUcate  portions.  Everything  may  be 
swallowed  that  can  be  reduced  to  pulp  by  thorough 
mastication. 

Oatmeal  also  acts,  to  some  extent,  mechanically. 
Many  people  are  more  or  less  affected  by  even  the 
most  finely  ground  samples.  This  may  be  due  to 
the  chemical  action  of  some  of  the  constituents, 
probably  the  fat ;  but  coarsely  ground  oatmeal 
produces  more  marked  effects. 

Fats  are  particularly  useful  in  constipation. 
They  act  as  lubricants.  Animal  fats  probably  have 
no  other  effect,  but  some  of  the  vegetable  oils  stimu- 
late the  action  of  the  bowels.  Castor  oil,  for  in- 
stance, is  a  powerful  purgative,  and  some  of  the 
edible  oils  have  a  similar  if  much  milder  effect. 

The  laxative  effects  of  fresh  fruits  are  usually 
attributed  to  the  acids  and  acid  salts  which  they 


SPECIAL  DIET  237 

contain.  It  is  not  certain,  however,  that  these 
effects  result  entirely  from  the  action  of  the  acids, 
etc.,  on  the  bowels ;  they  may  be  due,  in  some  mea- 
sure, to  action  on  other  foods  and  contents  of  the 
bowels.  Acids  certainly  have  a  solvent  action  on 
starch  and  other  carbohydrates.  At  all  events, 
the  effects  of  soft  fruits,  plums,  strawberries,  etc., 
must  be  attributed  to  chemical  rather  than  mechan- 
ical causes. 

Fresh  vegetables  may  act,  to  some  extent,  in  a 
similar  manner ;  but  the  proportion  of  acids  and 
acid  salts  in  these  products  is  usually  much  smaller 
than  in  fruits,  and  other  causes  may  contribute. 
Vegetables,  such  as  cabbage,  turnips,  etc.,  contain 
considerable  amounts  of  cellulose.  This  substance 
is  largely  indigestible,  and  of  little  or  no  nutritive 
value  ;  but  in  the  intestines,  it  undergoes  changes 
which  result  in  the  formation  of  gases,  and  the  pres- 
sure tends  to  expel  f  secal  matter.  The  bulky  nature 
of  the  cellulose  also  tends  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  clots  in  the  bowels. 

Dyspepsia  is  a  somewhat  indefinite  term,  but  is 
generally  used  to  describe  any  disturbance  of  the 
processes  of  gastric  digestion  which  results  in  a 
feeling  of  oppression  and  pain  in  the  stomach  after 
eating  food.  Flatulence  and  palpitation  frequently 
accompany  these  symptoms.  It  is  usually  ascribed 
to  acidity  of  the  stomach,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
excessive  secretion  of  gastric  juice. 

So  far  as  the  dietetic  treatment  is  concerned,  the 
obvious  general  rule  is  to  avoid  anything  likely  to 
produce  or  increase  irritation  of  the  stomach.  In 
this  category  must  be  placed  aU  indigestible  sub- 
stances, i.e.  those  which  normally  remain  long  in 
the  stomach,  such  as  pastry ;   the  harder  kinds  of 


238  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

meat,  skin,  sinew,  etc.  ;  coarse  and  bulky  foods 
such  as  oatmeal,  brown  bread  and  those  vegetables 
which  contain  much  cellulose  ;  strongly  acid  fruits 
and  those  which  contain  seeds,  e.g.  rasps,  tomatoes, 
figs,  etc.  ;  and  spices  such  as  curry,  pepper  and 
mustard ;  even  salt  should  be  used  with  great 
moderation. 

The  total  quantity  of  food  should  in  many  cases 
be  reduced,  only  small  quantities  should  be  con- 
sumed at  a  time,  and  that  should  be  thoroughly 
weU  masticated.  The  food  should  consist  largely 
of  nulk,  eggs,  fish  and  tender  meat,  with  a  consider- 
able amount  of  delicate  fat  and  butter.  Table 
jellies,  i.e.  those  made  of  gelatine,  are  strongly 
recommended,  but  they  should  be  free  from  alcohol, 
artificial  colours  and  flavouring  essences  such  as 
vanilla,  etc.  Sugar  is  probably  the  most  suitable 
form  of  carbohydrate,  but  starchy  puddings  such 
as  cornflour  and  arrowroot  are  also  suitable.  It  is 
recommended  that  bread  should  be  toasted  to  pro- 
mote the  conversion  of  starch  into  dextrin.  Pota- 
toes should  be  used  only  in  small  quantities,  and 
should  be  crushed  through  a  presser. 

For  drink,  tepid  water  is  the  best,  and  may  with 
advantage  be  used  in  considerable  quantities.  Tea 
and  coffee,  if  used,  should  be  very  weak,  should 
not  be  very  hot,  and  should  be  slowly  sipped. 

Obesity,  in  its  simpler  forms,  may  be  regarded 
merely  as  an  extreme  case  of  the  tendency  to  increase 
weight  which  some  individuals  exhibit  in  more 
marked  degree  than  others.  The  fundamental 
facts  have  already  been  discussed  (p.  56  et.  seq.) ; 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  it  is  a  question  of  the 
relation  between  the  amount  of  food  consumed  and 
the  rate  at  which  it  is  oxidiajed,     In  sopae  cases,  th© 


SPECIAL  DIET  239 

condition  is  aggravated  by  defective  circulation, 
constipation,  a  dropsical  tendency  or  pathological 
phenomena  which  may  require  medical  treatment ; 
but  so  far  as  obesity  itseK  is  concerned,  the  problem 
is  practically  one  of  diet. 

Let  a  man  be  ever  so  fat,  if  he  eat  nothing  at  all, 
he  will  lose  weight,  and  soon  die.  If  he  eats  a 
certain  amount  his  weight  will  increase.  There  is 
a  point,  between  these  two,  at  which  he  wUl  lose 
weight  but  not  die;  and  another  at  which  his 
weight  wiU  remain  practically  constant.  These 
points  depend  chiefly  upon  the  rate  of  oxidation, 
and  are,  of  course,  different  for  each  individual. 
It  is  beside  the  question  for  a  fat  man  to  argue  that 
he  eats  less  than  another,  for  "  it  is  plain  that  if 
he  is  too  fat,  he  has  eaten  more  than  he  should 
have  done."  The  word  obesity  itseK  implies  as 
much. 

The  question,  however,  is  not  wholly  one  of  quan- 
tity ;  the  kind  of  food  is  also  important.  The 
popular  notion  that  fats  and  sugar  should  be  avoided 
by  persons  inclined  to  corpulency  is  sound  only  in 
certain  circumstances,  and  it  is  often  wrongly 
applied.  A  man  might  eat  as  much  as  he  pleased 
of  either  or  both  of  these  nutrients  and  yet,  if  he 
ate  nothing  else,  i.e.  if  he  took  no  protein,  he  would 
lose  weight,  and  ultimately  die  of  starvation  (p.  45). 
On  the  other  hand,  given  a  sufficiency  of  protein, 
any  excess  of  non-nitrogenous  nutrients  may  be 
laid  up  as  fat. 

The  problem  may  therefore  be  solved  either  by 
limiting  the  allowance  of  protein  to  less  than  is 
required,  in  which  case  liberal  quantities  of  fat  and 
carbohydrates  may  be  given ;  or  by  giving  suffi- 
ciency of  protein  and  restricting  the  allowance  of 


240  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

non-nitrogenous  matter.  The  latter  is  the  orthodox 
and  probably,  in  general,  the  better  plan.  In 
either  case,  the  key  to  the  situation  is  to  be  found 
in  the  answer  to  the  questions,  what  is  sufficiency  of 
protein  ?  and  what  is  excess  of  non-nitrogenous 
matter  ?  So  we  return  again  to  considerations  of 
quantity. 

For  normal  individuals,  the  quantities  may  be 
taken  to  be  those  of  the  standard  diet  (p.  47) ; 
but  for  those  inclined  to  obesity  they  are  probably 
excessive  ;  for,  it  must  be  remembered,  this  ten- 
dency implies  less  than  the  normal  capacity  for 
oxidation.  According  to  Chittenden,  the  allowance 
of  protein  is  nearly  twice  as  much  as  is  actually 
required  ;  and  in  cases  of  obesity  it  might  be  con- 
siderably reduced,  though  this  is  not  actually 
necessary  when  the  allowance  of  non-nitrogenous 
nutrients  is  duly  limited.  In  some  cases,  the  fuel 
value  may  be  reduced  to  half  the  quantity  given  in 
the  standard  diet ;  in  others  it  may  be  more  or  less  ; 
no  general  statement  can  be  made.  The  quantity 
should  be  gradually  reduced  until  the  weighing 
machine  shows  that  the  body  weight  is  decreasing. 
Provided  these  rules  are  observed,  there  is  no  reason 
why  any  particular  kind  of  food  should  be  taken 
or  shunned.  The  directions  given  to  sufferers  from 
obesity  to  avoid  this,  that  or  the  other  kind  of  food 
often  fail  because  the  omission  is  made  up  by  a 
double  dose  of  something  else.  To  stop  using 
sugar,  or  butter,  or  potatoes,  or  anything  else, 
can  only  be  effective  provided  they  are  simply 
dropped  out  of  the  menu,  and  nothing  put  in  their 
place.  In  serious  cases,  negative  directions  of  that 
kind  are  useless  ;  they  must  be  replaced  by  positive 
instructions  to  take  so  many  oz.  of  certain  foods, 


SPECIAL  DIET  241 

calculated  to  contain  definite  amounts  of  nutrients, 
and  nothing  else. 

Harvey's  system  of  diet — better  known  under 
the  name  of  Banting,  the  patient  for  whom  it  was 
devised — ^provided  6  oz.  of  protein  and  1,110  kal. 
fuel  value.  It  is  a  very  elaborate  programme,  full 
of  absurd  restrictions,  but  it  proved  so  successful 
that  many  of  the  old-fashioned  ideas  embodied  in 
it  survive  to  this  day.  Perhaps  the  worst  that 
can  be  said  of  this  and  other  similar  systems,  e.g. 
those  of  Hirschfield,  Oertel  and  others,  is  that  they 
are  not  generally  applicable. 

Drugs  and  medicines  are  not  only  useless,  but 
worse  than  useless.  If  they  are  in  any  degree  effec- 
tive, they  must  be  more  or  less  injurious.  No  drug 
is  known  to  reduce  fat.  At  best,  they  can  only 
prevent  absorption,  either  by  action  on  the  food, 
or  more  frequently,  by  injury  to  the  digestive 
organs.  Of  course,  in  complicated  cases,  medical 
as  well  as  dietetic  treatment  may  be  necessary. 

Diabetes  is  an  insidious  disease  of  which  the 
characteristic  symptom  is  the  appearance  of  sugar 
in  the  urine.  It  is  not  well  understood,  and  there 
are  probably  several  forms  of  the  disease,  all  more 
or  less  serious  in  character  ;  but  the  dietetic  treat- 
ment is  practically  the  same  in  aU  cases,  viz.,  the 
more  or  less  complete  elimination  from  the  diet  of 
sugars  and  all  carbohydrate  compounds  which  are 
transformed  into  sugars  in  the  system.  This,  of 
course,  involves  the  exclusion  from  the  menu  of  all 
cereals  and  farinaceous  products,  including  bread, 
also  potatoes,  roots,  e.g.  turnips,  carrots,  etc., 
legumes  (peas  and  beans)  and  fruits.  The  diet  is, 
therefore,  limited  almost  entirely  to  animal  pro- 
ducts, but  certain  fruits  and  green  vegetables,  e.g. 


242  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

cabbage  sprouts  and  cauliflower,  may  be  used.  Mflk 
contains  sugar  and  is,  therefore,  barred  ;  but  butter, 
cheese  and  certain  milk  preparations,  e.g.  casumen, 
may  be  taken. 

For  sweetening,  saccharine  makes  a  satisfactory 
substitute  for  sugar  ;  and  several  substitutes  for 
flour  and  bread  can  be  obtained.  The  latter  are 
very  expensive,  and  bear  little  resemblance  to 
ordinary  flour  and  bread. 

The  sufferer  from  diabetes  must  depend  mainly 
upon  eggs,  fish  and  meat.  The  last  may  be  of  any 
kind,  including  bacon  and  ham,  but  it  should  be  as 
fat  as  can  be  obtained  ;  even  so,  the  diet  will 
always  contain  an  excess  of  protein. 

In  certain  cases,  carbohydrates  are  not  rigidly 
excluded,  a  certain  amount  of  bread,  potatoes  or 
other  starchy  food  being  found  not  only  harmless, 
but  actually  beneficial ;  but  these  cases  are  perhaps 
exceptional. 

Rheumatism  and  gout  were  formerly  attributed 
to  the  presence  of  excessive  quantities  of  uric  acid 
in  the  blood  ;  but  this  condition  is  now  more  com- 
monly regarded  as  a  symptom  than  a  cause  of  these 
disorders. 

Considerable  differences  of  opinion  still  exist 
as  to  the  most  suitable  diet.  There  is,  however,  a 
general  agreement  that  the  food  should  be  simple, 
of  an  easily  digestible  character  and  strictly  moderate 
in  quantity,  especially  as  regards  protein. 

Pastry,  highly  spiced  and  cured  foods  should  be 
avoided.  An  ordinary  mixed  diet  is  probably  the 
best ;  -but  the  proportion  of  meat  should  be  small. 
Fish  and  chicken  are  considered  better  than  red 
meats,  and  sweetbreads  are  recommended.  Carbo- 
hydrates— starch   and   sugar — should   be   partially 


SPECIAL  DIET  243 

replaced  by  butter  and  other  fats,  but  milk  may 
be  used  freely. 

Vegetarian  diet  is  not,  as  might  be  supposed,  a 
self -defined  term.  Some  vegetarians  eschew  all 
animal  products  of  any  kind  whatever.  Others, 
perhaps  the  majority,  use  honey,  eggs,  milk,  etc. 
Vegetarianism  is  advocated  chiefly  on  sentimental 
grounds  ;  but  hygienic  reasons  also  are  sometimes 
advanced  in  support  or  defence  of  the  principles. 
Any  discussion  of  the  former  would  be  out  of 
place  here ;  but  the  latter  may  be  briefly  con- 
sidered. 

Unprejudiced  persons,  if  there  be  any  such,  will 
generally  admit  that  many  people  eat  too  much 
meat ;  and  that  occasional  or  complete  abstinence 
from  flesh  foods  may  be  good  for  some,  but  not  for 
others.  It  has  been  abundantly  proved  that,  so 
far  as  normal,  healthy  individuals  are  concerned, 
life  and  health  may  be  maintained,  and  much  bodily 
work  accomplished,  on  a  diet  from  which  flesh,  fish 
and  fowl  are  rigidly  excluded.  Such  diet  is  usually, 
but  not  necessarily,  much  cheaper  than  the  ordinary 
mixed  food  of  the  omniver. 

The  question  is  largely  one  of  taste.  If  eggs, 
milk,  butter  and  cheese  are  used,  vegetarian  diet 
is  probably  not  so  cheap,  or  nasty,  as  is  often 
supposed. 

In  the  absence  of  milk  and  eggs,  vegetarian  diet 
may  be  suspected  of  a  tendency  to  contain  excessive 
amounts  of  carbohydrates.  This  may,  or  may  not, 
imply  deficiency  of  protein  and  fat.  The  tendency, 
if  it  exists,  may  be  easily  avoided.  Chittenden's 
views  are  frequently  cited  by  vegetarian  pro- 
tagonists ;  but  it^does  not  appear  that  these  are 
essential  to  their  position.    The  standards  recom- 


244  ECONOMY  OF  FOOD 

mended  by  other  authorities  are  easily  attainable 
on  the  strictest  vegetarian  diet. 

The  staple  food  of  vegetarians  in  this  country 
is  wheat  flour,  in  one  form  or  another,  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  which  (1  to  7)  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
standard  diet.  The  addition  of  fat,  sugar  and 
starchy  foods  tends  to  reduce  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  the  diet  below  the  standard  ;  but  this  is  corrected 
by  oatmeal,  legumes  and  certain  kinds  of  nuts. 
Suitable  vegetarian  diets  may  be  computed  from  the 
figures  given  in  the  tables,  in  the  manner  previously 
described. 


INDEX 


Abdomen,  13 

Aberdeen  haddocks,  89 

Absorption,  17,  29 

Acid  fruits,  237 

Acidity  of  gastric  juice,  16 

Acids,  action  on  starch,  32 

Adulteration  of  bread,  107 

of  honey,  120 

of  oils,  113 

of  spices,  132 
Air,  14 

Aitch-bone,  70,  71 
Albumen,  94,  127 
Albuminoids,  25,  27 
Alcohol,  31,  37 
Alcoholic  beverages,  10 
Aldehydes,  132 
Ale,  64 

Alimentary  canal,  13 
Alkalis,  30 
Allspice,  133 
Almonds,  111 
Alum,  107 

Amides  and  amino-acids,  37 
Amygdalin,  135 
Analysis  of  beef  tea,  225 

of    morning    and     evening 
meals,  231 

of  puddings,  223 

of  soups,  229 
Animal  bodies,  25 

foods,  64,  66 

heat,  14 
Antiseptics,  20,  66,  96 
Appetizing  properties,    8,    8, 
128,  131,  143 


Appendix  A,  165 

B,  171 

C,  174 

D,  176 

E,  177 

F,  178 

G,  182 
Apples,  215 
Apricots,  173 
Arachis  oil,  114 
Arctic  regions,  52,  198 
Aroma,  132 
Arrowroot,  109 
Artichokes,  117 
Assimilation,  5 
Athletes,  6,  59 
Atwater,  21,  35,  55 

Bacon,  78,  167,  179 
Bacteria,  12,  101,  144 
Baking,  106,  139,  143 
Baking-powders,  139 
Bananas,  215 
Banting,  10,  241 
Barcelona  nuts.  111 
Barley,  171 

bread,  107 

broth,  227 
Batter  pudding,  218 
Beans,  110 

French,  117 
Beef,  69,  165,  167,  178 
Beefsteak  pudding,  218 
Beef  tea,  225 
Beer,  31,  137 
Beetroot.  137 


245 


246 


INDEX 


Beet  sugar.  111 

Belly  or  abdomen,  13 

Belly  or  spring  of  pork,  77 

Benger's  food,  176 

Benzaldehyde,  134 

Beverages,  64 

Bile,  16 

Biogene,  125 

Bitter  almond  oil,  134 

Bloaters,  89 

Blood,  13 

circulation,  17 

clots,  27 

plasma,  17 

system,  13 

vessels,  25 
Body,  composition  of,  13,  25 

heat,  14 

requirements  of,  40,  183 

temperature  of,  35 
Boiled  pastry,  220 
Boiling  meat,  145 

vegetables,  146 
Bomb-calorimeter,  34 
Bones,  13,  26 
Borax,  20 
Boric  acid,  96 
Bran,  103 
Brazil  nuts.  111 
Bread,  106,  139,  199 
Bread  pudding,  221 
Breakfast,  213,  231 
Breast  of  lamb,  77 

of  mutton,  76 

of  veal,  76 
Brewing,  137 
Brisket,  70,  73,  165 
BroiUng,  143 
Bryant,  147 
Buchner,  11 
Butcher's  meat,  69,  165 

sundries,  82 
Butter,  29,  98,  199 
Butter  milk,  10 
Butyric  acid,  140 

Cabbage,  117,  216 
Calculations,  183 


Calorimeter,  bomb,  34 

respiration,  41 
Calves,  74 

Cane  sugar,  31,  33,  111 
Capillaries,  17 
Capsicum,  136 
Carbohydrates,  27,  31,  36 
Carbon,  28,  30,  33      , 
Carbonates,  96,  140 
Carbonic  acid,  29,  31,  41,  139 
Carrots,  117,  215 
Cartilage,  26 
Casein,  94 
Cassava,  110 
Cassia,  133 
Castor  oil,  236 
Casumen,  125 
Cauliflower,  117,  125 
Cayenne  pepper,  136 
Celery,  117 
CeUulose,  31,  32,  67 
Centrifugal  separator,  98 
Cereals,  103,  171,  180 
Cheese,  98,  169 
Chemical  action,  140 

compounds,  25 
Chemistry  of  nutrition,  25 
Cherries,  215 
Chest,  13 
Chestnuts,  111 
Cheviots,  76 
Chickens,  85 

Children,  3,  61,  63,  95,  216 
Chuck,  70,  73 
Chump-end,  74 
Chyme,  16 
Cider,  137 
Cinnamon,  133 
Circulation,  17 
Clams,  90 

Classification  of  foods,  64 
Clear  soups,  225 
Climate,  51,  198 
Clod,  70 
Clothes,  51 
Cloves,  133 

Coagulation,  28,  144,  147 
Cockles,  90 


INDEX 


247 


Cocoa,  64 
Cocoanuts,  111 
Cod,  88 

Cold  climates,  51,  198 
Cold  foods,  20 
Cold  weather,  51 
Combustion,  14 

heat  of,  34 
Common  salt,  20,  135 
Comparison  of  meats,  79 
Composition  of  body,  13,  25 

of  food,  165 
Computation  of  diets,  183 
Concentrated  foods,  5 
Condiments,  3,  131,  135 
Constipation,  236 
Constituents  of  food,  35 
Convalescents,  235 
Cooking,  8,  143 
Cornflour,  109 
Cost  of  food,  4,  68,  149,  178, 

208,  210 
Cotton-seed  oil,  114 
Crabs,  90 
Crayfish,  91 
Cream,  97 

Cream  of  tartar,  140 
Crustaceans,  90 
Cucumbers,  117 
Curing  fish,  88 

pork,  78 
Ciu-rants,  215 
Currant  dumpling,  220 
Curry,  108 
Custard  powders,  130 

Dairy  produce,  92,  169,  180 
Dates,  215 
Day's  rations,  214 
Decay,  20 
Deer,  19 

Deficiency  of  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates, 38 

of  protein,  45 

of  water,  21 
Demerara  sugar,  112 
Desiccated  eggs,  130 

milk,  126 


Dextrin,  32 

Diabetes,  124,  126,  241 

Diastase,  123 

Diastatic  fermentation,  32 

Diet,  183 

for  children,  61 

for  families,  207 

for  lactation,  61 

for  maintenance,  47 

for  pregnancy,  61 

for  work,  55 

for  special,  235 

vegetarian,  243 
Dietetic  customs,  4 

requirements,  61 

treatment,  235 
Difference  between  individuals, 

56 
Digestibihty,  5,  18,  21,  144 
Digestion  of  allDuminoids,  16 

of  carbohydrates,  15 

of  fats,  16 

processes  of,  15 

time  of,  22 
Digestive  juices,  15,  18 
Dinner,  213 
Dried  foods,  21,  173 
Ducks,  86 
Dumplings,  218 
Dupr6's  apparatus,  41 
Dyspepsia,  237 


Economy,  1,  149 

Eggs,  10,  99 

Egg  substitutes 

Elements,    chemical,    28,     30, 

33 
Emulsions,  30 
Energy,  35,  49,  53 
Enzemes,  15 
Equations,  189 
Eskimos,  198 
Essences,  134 
Essential  oils,  132 
Ethers,  132 
Eucasein,  126 
Excretion,  6,  17,  24 


248 


INDEX 


Excess     of     fat     and     carbo- 
hydrates, 36 

of  protein,  38,  45 

of  water,  21 
Exercise,  48,  62 
Expenditure,  family,  208 
Experiments  on  metabolism,40 
Exposure,  61 

Extracts  of  Meat,  37,  127,  176 
Extractives,  37,  127,  144 

Faeces,  17,  22,  44 
Fallacies,  12 
Familiar  diet,  206 
Fasting,  44 
Fat  in  body,  26,  26,  36 

in  food,  27,  35  36 
Fats  and  oils,  29,  113 
Fattening,  4,  6,  58 
Fatty  acids,  30 

tissue,  36 
Farinaceous  products,  15,  103, 

180 
Ferments,  16,  20,  31,  94,  141 
Fermentation,  31,  32,  139 
Figs,  215 
Fig  pudding,  221 
Filberts,  111 
FiUet  of  haddock,  89 

of  veal,  74 
Fish,  11,  86,  168,  179 
Flank,  70,  72 
Flavour,  132 
Flatulence,  19,  111 
Flavouring,  3,  131 
Flesh,  13,  26 
Fleshformers,  5 
Floimder,  88 
Flour,  106 
Food,  64 

constituents  of,  35 

necessity  for,  14,  27 

quantity  of,  39 

value,  36 
Foreloin,  77 

Forequarters,  70,  76,  77,  167 
Formalin,  20,  96 
Formulas,  60,  153,  160 


Fowls,  85 

French  beans,  118 

Frisby,  147 

Fructose,  31 

Fruit,  116,  118,  173,  181,210 

Fruit  jellies  and  jam,  119 

Frying,  143 

Fuel,  14 

Fuel  value,  36,  165 

Fungi,  122,  138 

Game,  85 
Gammon,  79 
Gastric  digestion,  16 

juice,  16 
Geese,  86 

Gelatin,  37,  127,  129,  144 
Germ  of  grain,  103 
Ginger,  133 
Glands,  13 

Glandular  secretions,  16 
Glaxo,  126 
Glucose,  31,  33 
Glucoside,  135 
Gluten,  106 
Gluten  bread,  124 
Glycerides,  30 
Glycerine,  30 
Glycocine,  37 
Goat's  flesh,  19 

milk,  93 
Golden  syrup,  113 
Grooseberries,  216 
Gout,  242 
Green  peas,  215 
Green  vegetables,  117 
Grindley,  145 
Ground  nuts,  111 
Ground  spices,  132 
Growth,  39,  61 
Gullet,  15 
Gum,  32,  120 
Gut,  13 

Ham,  167 
H  bone,  70,  71 
Haddock,  88 
Hair,  26 


INDEX 


249 


Hake,  88 
HaUbut,  88 
Hand  of  pork,  77 
Harvey's  system,  241 
Heart,  13 
Hearts  edible,  83 
Heat  producers,  5 

of  body,  14 

of  combustion,  34 

radiation  of,  49 
Height  and  weight,  50 
Herring,  88 
Hindloin,  77 

Hind  quarters,  70,  75,  77,  167 
Hirschfield,  241 
Hock,  74 
Honey,  120 
Hot  food,  20 
Hiiman  milk,  95 
Humanized  milk,  96 
Hutchinson's  table,  23 
Hydrocarbons,  132 
Hydrogen,  26,  28,  30,  33 

Iced  food  and  water,  20 
Increase  of  weight,  68,  239 
Indigestible,  5,  17,  65 
Indigestion,  22,  237 
Individuals,  difference,  56 
Infant's  foods,  121,  174 

weight  of,  51 
Instinct,  3 
Intestines,  13,  16 
Invahd's  foods,  121,  174,  235 

Jams,  119 

Jellies  (gelatin),  129 

Juices,  digestive,  15 

Ketchup,  135 

Kidneys,  function  of,  24 

edible,  82 
Kilo-calories,  35 
Klinetic  energy,  49 
Kippers,  89 
Knuckle  of  veal,  74 

Lactation,  60 
Lactic  acid,  139,  140 


Lactose,  31 
Lacumen,  125 
Lacvitum,  125 
Lamb,  76,  166,  167,  179 
Lard,  29,  84 
Large  men,  57 
Leaves,  67 
Leeks,  117,  215 
Leg  of  beef,  70 

of  lamb,  76 

of  mutton,  75 

of  pork,  77 

of  veal,  74 
Legumes,  110,  172,  180 
Legumin,  124 
Lemon  oil,  135 
Lemons,  173 
Lentils,  110 
Lentil  soup,  228 
Lettuce,  117 
Leucine,  37 
Liebig's  theory,  52 
Life,  14 
Lights,  83 
Ling,  salt,  89 
Linseed  oil,  29 
Liver,  functions  of,  16,  25 

edible,  83 
Lobster,  90 
Loins,  74,  75,  76,  77 
Loss  of  weight,  14,  58 
Lungs,  function  of,   14 

edible,  83 
Lubrication,  236 


Macaroni,  107 
Mace,  132 
Mackerel,  88 
Maize,  109,  171 
Malt,  32,  123 
Malt  extract,  123 
Malted  foods,   123 
Malt  liquors,   10 
Margarine,  98 
Marmalade  pudding,  222 
Mastication,   15,   18 
Meals,  22 


250 


INDEX 


Meat,  butcher's,  69,  204 

extracts,  127 

juice,  176 

pastes,  128 

powders,  128 

tea,  128 

raw  and  cooked,  7,  23,  144 
Melons,  216 
Metabolism,  40 
Microbes,  101 
Middlings,  105 
Milk,  9,  92 

condensed,   125 

ciu-d,  27,  98 

desiccated,  125 

peptonized,  124 

preparations,  177 

preservation  of,  96 

pudding,  216 

sugar,  31 
MiUing,  103,  107 
Mineral  matter,  25 
Miscellaneous  foods,  131,  177, 

181 
Mixed  diet,  204 

foods,  9 
Molasses,  113 
Moleschott,  55 
Molluscs,  90 
Mother's  milk,  95 
Mountain  sheep,  76 
Mouth,  15 
Mucilage,  31,  32 
Muscular  tissue,  25,  52 
Mushrooms,   172 
Mussels,  90 
Mustard,  136 
Mutton,  75,  166,  167,  179 

Nails,  26 

National  diet,  196 
Neck  of  beef,  70 

of  lamb,  77 

of  mutton,  75 

of  veal,  74 
Nerves,  25 
Nervous  exhaustion,  2 

system,  13 


Nitrogen,  23,  28,  36 
Nitrogenous    extractives,    37, 
127,  144 

matter,  23 

nutrients,  5,  39 
Nutmegs,  132 
Nutrition,  6 

chemistry  of,  25 

physiology  of,  13 
Nutritious  foods,  4 
Nutritive  ratio,  65 

value,  9,    36,    149 
Nutrose,  126 
Nuts,  111,   172,   181 

Oatcakes,  202 

Oatmeal,   108,  201 

Oats,  108,   171 

Obesity,  7,  238 

Odour  of  food,  8,  128,  143 

Oertel,  241 

Oils  and  fats,  29,    113,  236 

Oil  of  bitter  almonds,  134 

of  lemon  135 

castor,  236 

linseed,  29 

olive,  113 

pahn,  29 

vegetable,  113 
Olein,  30 
Onions,  117,  215 
Oranges,  215 
Organs,  13,  25,  165 
Oswego,  171 
Oxen,  69 

Oxidation,  14,  27,  57 
Ox  tails,  82 
Ox  tongues,  82 
Oxygen,  26,  28,  29,  31,  33 
Oysters,  90 

Palate,  2,  83,  157 
Palmitin,  30 
Pahn  oil,  29 
Pancreas,  16 
Pancreatic  juice,  16 
Parsley,  117 
Parsnips,  117 


INDEX 


261 


Pasteurization,  97 
Pastry,  220,  237,  242 
Patent  foods,  121 
Peaches,  173 
Peachnut  kernel  oil,  114 
Peanuts,  111 
Peanut  oil,  114 
Pearl  barley,  108 
Pears,  215 
Peas,  110 

green,  117 
Pectin,  119 
Pepper,  136 
Pepsin,  16 

Peptones,  16,  29,  128,  176 
Peptonized  milk,    124 
Perfect  food,  9 
Pettenkofer,  43 
Phosphates,  26 
Phosphorus,   11 
Physiology  of  nutrition,  13 
Pimento,   133 
Plaice,  88 
Plants,  67 

Plasma  of  blood,   17 
Plasmon,  126 
Playfair,  55 
Pluck,  sheep's,  83 
Plums,  215 
PoUards,   103 
Popular  fallacies,  12 
Pork,  77,  166,  168,  179 
Porridge,  21,  201 
Potatoes,  117,  202 
Potato  soup,  228 
Pot  barley,  107 
Potential  energy,  49 
Potted  meat,   18,  83,  128 
Poultry,  85,  168  179 
Prawns,  90 
Pregnancy,  59 
Prepared  foods,   121,   174 
Prepared  starches,   171 
Preservation  of  eggs,  101 

of  meat,  66 

of  milk,  96 
Preservatives,  20,  96 
Price  of  food,  68,  149 


Proprietary  articles,  121 
Proteids,  25,  27 
Protein,  36,  37,  45,  94 
Prunes,  215 
Ptomaines,  90 
Pudding,  216,  218,  223 
Pulse,  110 

Quantity  of  food,  39 

Rabbits,  86 

Radiation  of  heat,  49 

Radishes,   117 

Raisins,  215 

Raspberries,  173 

Rations,  214,  231 

Raw  meat,  7,  23,  144 

Raw  sugar,  112 

Red  herring,  89 

Reduction  of  weight,  6,  58,  239 

Refuse,  65,  165 

Relative  value,  149,  178 

Rennet,  99,   141 

Requirements  of  body,  6,40,183 

of  families,  207 
Resins,  132 
Respiration,   14 
Respiration  calorimeter,  42 
Rheumatism,  126,  242 
Rhubarb,  215 
Ribs,  70,  73 
Rice,  108,  171 
Rice  pudding,  217 
Rich  food,  4 
Rickets,  95 
Rigor  mortis,   19 
Roasting,   146 
Rolypoly  pudding,  218 
Roots,  67,   117 
Round,  70,  71 
Rubner's  factors,  35,  36 
Rump,  70,  72 
Ryebread,  107 

Saccharin,  137 
Saddle  of  mutton,  75 
Sago,  109,  110 
Salicylic  acid,  20,  96 


252 


INDEX 


SaUva,  15,  32 
Salad  oil,  114 
Salmon,  88 
Salt,  20,  135 
Sanose,   126 
Santogen,   126 
Scrag  of  mutton,  75 

of  veal,  74 
Sauce,  wliite,  216 
Sausage  meat,  18,  73,  83 
Season  for  fish,  88 

for  lamb,  76 

for  pork,  77 

for  veal,  74 
Seconds,  105 
Secretions,   16 
Seeds,  117 
Semolina,   107 
Sharps,  105 
Sheep,  75 
Sheep's  pluck,  83 
SheU  fish,  90,  168 
Shin,  70 

Shoulders,  74,  75,  77 
Shredded  wheat,  107 
Shrimps,  90 
Sides  of  meat,  167 
Sirloin,  70,  72 
Size  of  individuals,  48,  50 
Skate,  88 
Skeleton,  13 
Skim  milk,   10,   169 
Skin,  25 
Small  men,  57 
Snails,  90 
Snyder,   147 
Soap,  30 

Soda,  baking,   140 
Sodium  silicate,  101 
Soup,  8,  124,  229 
Spaghetti,  107 
Special  diet,  235 
Spices,  64,  131 
Spinach,  117 
Spring  of  pork,  78 
Spores,  144 

Standard  diets,  47,  55,  61 
Starch,  31,  33 


Starvation,  3,  14,  37,  44,  239 

Steaming,  148 
Steak,  beef,  26,  71 
Stearin,  30 
Stems,  67,  117 
Sterilization,  97,   144 
Stock  for  soup,  129,  244 
Stomach,  16,  94 
Strawberries,  215 
Streaky  bacon,  79 
Strong  food,  4 
Suet,  84 
Sugars,  31,  111 
Sulphur,  28,  36 
Sundries,  butcher's,  82 
Supper,  214,  231 
Sweet  batter  pudding,   219 
Sweetbreads,  82 
Syrup,  113 


Tables,   165-182 

Tailings,   105 

TaUow,  29,  84 

Tannin,   132 

Tapioca,  109 

Tapioca  pudding,  217 

Tartaric  acid,   140 

Tea,  64 

Temperature  of  body,  35 

of  combustion,   34 
Terpenes,  132 
Thick  soups,  225 
Thoracic  viscera,  13 
Thorax,   13 

Thick  and  thin  flank,  70,    72 
Time   of   digestion,    23 
Tissue,  fatty,  36 

muscular,  25,  36 
Toast,  7 

Tomatoes,  117,  215 
Tongue,  82 

Tough  foods,   18,  19,  83 
Training,  athletic,  6,  59 
Treacle,  113 
Treacle  pudding,  222 
Tripe,  83 
Tryptic  ferments,  126 


INDEX 


253 


Tr3rptophane,  37 
Tubercle,  144 
Tubers,  117 
Turbot,  88 
Turkey,  86 
Turnips,  117,  215 
Tyrosine,  37 

Unedible  matter,  65 
Unleavened  bread,   107 
Urea,  24,  29,  40 
Urine,  24 

Value,  4 

fuel,  35,  46 

nutritive,  36,  149 

pecuniary,  149 

relative,  149,  178 
Vanilla,  134 

Variety,    importance    of,    198 
Veal,  74,  166,  167,  178 
Vegetable  fats,  113 

foods,  64,  66,  103 

margarine,  115 

marrow,  117 

soup,  225,  227 
Vegetables,  116,  172,  181 
Vegetarian  diet,  243 
Vegetative  organs,  67 


VermicelU,  107 

Vessels,  26 

Vinegar,  136 

Viscera,  13 

Voit's  experiments,  43,  46,  65 

Volatile  oils,  132 

Walnuts,  111 

Water,   10,  20,  25,  26,  29 

Water-glass,   101 

Water-melons,  215 

Ways  and  means,  206 

Weight  and  height,  50 
increase  of,   14,  58 
reduction  of,  6,  14,  58 

Welsh  mutton,  76 

Wheat,  104,  171 

Whelks,  90 

Whey,  99 

White  of  egg,  100 

White  sauce  216 

Wines,  10,  64 

Wolff,  55 

Woody  fibre,  20,  67,  110 

Work,  35,  52,  55 

Yeast,  31,  106,  138 
Yolk  of  egg,  100 
Yorkshire  pudding,  219 


Butler  &  Tannor,  The  Stlwood  Printing  Work*  Frome,  and  Londoa 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


LD  21-100m-7,'40 (69368) 

281515 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


